https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/ Language and Linguistics en daily 1 Mon, 22 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Mon, 22 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10742.html War, as one of the most complex social phenomena, has always been intertwined with ideology and power. In this context, language serves as a powerful tool, playing a central role in shaping public perceptions of war, justifying military actions, and maintaining or altering power relations. Critical Discourse Analysis, as an analytical framework, examines how political and media discourses construct, reproduce, or challenge ideologies.The cognitive approach in such analysis emphasizes mental mechanisms such as framing, metaphors, and the activation of schemata, through which language influences our thinking and perception of war. Meanwhile, the functional approach focuses on the social functions of discourse, including legitimizing violence, dehumanizing the enemy, and mobilizing public opinion.This study, focusing on war discourses, demonstrates how power is exercised through language and how ideologies serve to justify war and preserve the existing order. Language is the driving engine of the ideology of war. The characteristics of war ideology—its universality, power, invisibility, naturalness, and the methods of its continuity and transformation—are all rooted in its dependence on language. At the same time, this analysis considers the ethical implications of war discourse and highlights the necessity of critical awareness of the role of language in shaping public perception and social behavior.Ultimately, this research compares the effectiveness of both approaches in revealing the workings of dominant powers in the creation and justification of war.1. IntroductionWar, as one of the most complex social phenomena, has always been intertwined with ideology and power. Beyond its physical and political manifestations, war is a profoundly discursive construct—produced, legitimized, and perpetuated through language. Language not only narrates conflict but also shapes public understanding, moral justification, and political alignment. This study explores war discourse through the framework of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), emphasizing the intricate relationship between language, ideology, and power. By examining how war-related narratives are linguistically constructed, this paper seeks to uncover the mechanisms through which discursive practices sustain systems of domination and justify violence. Accordingly, the research aims to (1) analyze the linguistic mechanisms that shape social cognition and perception of war; (2) identify how ideological structures are reproduced or contested in political and media discourse; and (3) compare cognitive and functional approaches in their capacity to reveal the power dynamics underlying war narratives.Research QuestionHow does language function as an instrument of ideological control and justification in war discourse? 2. Literature ReviewCap (2008), inspired by the pragmatic analysis of political discourse, defines proximization as a strategy for legitimizing interventionist actions. Politicians, through symbolic shifts in the boundaries of space, time, and value, make a distant threat appear immediate and urgent, thereby rendering military action seemingly necessary. Lukin (2014) explored the hidden semiotic mechanisms in language upon which ideology depends. Her book demonstrates the ideological power of language through one of humanity’s most influential belief systems: the ideologies that allow us to perceive war as legitimate, admirable, and even sacred, while simultaneously condemning and prohibiting violence. To this end, she draws on extensive multimodal linguistic corpora, including the British National Corpus and media reports on the 2003 Iraq invasion from outlets in Australia, the U.S., Europe, and Asia. By combining detailed textual analysis with corpus-linguistic methods, her work provides an empirical account that exposes the astonishing reach of war ideologies and their hidden coercive power. Oddo (2011) shows that President Bush employed morally charged lexical-grammatical resources to construct the semantic categories of us and them, thereby reinforcing an ideological dualism that made the unpleasant realities of the Iraq War appear necessary and inevitable. Sabah (2010) analyzed and compared the use of conceptual metonymies related to the Iraq War. This study demonstrates how the media, through conceptual metonymies, structure war events in specific ways and shape the audience’s understanding of us and them. Mirfakhraei (2016) found that in tense socio-political and international contexts such as the U.S.–Iraq War, even within the conventions of balanced news reporting, persuasive strategies were employed to advance certain specific objectives.3. Methodology The study employs a qualitative discourse-analytic approach, integrating both cognitive-linguistic and functional-linguistic frameworks. The data comprise selected samples of political speeches, media reports, and editorials that construct, justify, or contest war-related narratives. The analysis follows three stages:1. Textual Analysis: Identifying key linguistic features such as metaphors, frames, evaluative expressions, and lexical choices.2. Cognitive Mapping: Examining how these features activate mental models and conceptual schemas related to war (e.g., “war as defense,” “enemy as evil,” “violence as necessity”).3. Functional Interpretation: Assessing the communicative and ideological purposes these structures serve—legitimation, moral alignment, mobilization, or resistance.4.ResultsPreliminary findings indicate that war discourse operates through a dynamic interplay between ideological invisibility and linguistic normalization. Ideologies of war become pervasive precisely because they appear natural and commonsensical. Three major mechanisms are observed in this respect:1. Metaphorical Framing: Common metaphors such as “war as purification,” “nation as body,” or “enemy as disease” provide cognitive justification for violence by embedding it in moral or naturalistic frames.2. Dehumanization Strategies: Lexical patterns portray adversaries as abstract, collective threats rather than human agents, reducing empathy and legitimizing aggression.3. Legitimation through Rationalization: War is framed as inevitable or defensive, invoking necessity, duty, or moral obligation as justifications for violence.Moreover, counter-discourses that challenge dominant narratives employ reframing strategies emphasizing human cost, moral accountability, and universal ethics. These alternative discourses expose the ideological nature of “neutral” reporting and highlight the potential of language to resist power.5. DiscussionThe study demonstrates that language is not merely reflective but constitutive of ideology and power. Through discourse, social actors construct and stabilize hierarchies of legitimacy. The ideology of war derives its strength from its linguistic roots: its ubiquity, its invisibility, and its perceived naturalness. From a cognitive perspective, linguistic structures activate shared conceptual schemas that make certain interpretations appear self-evident. From a functional perspective, these same structures serve pragmatic purposes in maintaining social cohesion, mobilizing support, and silencing dissent. Together, these insights underscore the ethical responsibility of discourse producers and analysts alike. Awareness of the ideological force of language is essential for cultivating critical literacy and democratic accountability.6. ConclusionBy integrating cognitive and functional approaches within CDA, this research reveals how language operates as a powerful vehicle of ideological control in the discourse of war. The findings show that war is not only fought on battlefields but also in the symbolic domain of words, metaphors, and narratives. Language thus functions as the engine of war ideology, shaping perception, moral reasoning, and collective behavior. Recognizing the moral and political consequences of such discursive constructions encourages a critical awareness of how linguistic choices contribute to the justification of violence and the perpetuation of existing power structures. Ultimately, the study calls for an emancipatory discourse practice that resists ideological manipulation and promotes a more humane and reflective understanding of conflict. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10743.html The present paper conducts a comparative analysis of the microstructure of two monolingual Persian learners' dictionaries: the Advanced Learners' Persian Dictionary and the Persian Learners' Dictionary for Elementary Language Learners. To achieve this goal, thirty-nine representative lexical entries were randomly selected from both dictionaries. These entries were analyzed in terms of how they represent microstructural features, including orthographic, phonological, grammatical, morphological, pragmatic, and semantic information. The evaluation criteria were based on established findings in lexicographic research. The results indicate that the Advanced Learners' Persian Dictionary places a strong emphasis on providing detailed usage information, distinguishing multiple senses of headwords, and offering a wide range of collocations and idiomatic expressions. It also makes use of illustrative images to enhance comprehension. In contrast, the Elementary Learners’ Dictionary focuses on supplying systematic and simplified definitions, highlighting lexical relations, and reinforcing understanding through carefully chosen examples. These findings suggest varying pedagogical orientations tailored to different learner proficiencies.1. IntroductionLearners’ dictionaries play a significant role in second-language acquisition. This is mainly because they provide users with essential semantic and pragmatic information they need to understand and produce words in the target language. However, the range of vocabulary they cover and the way they present information to the learner determine the effectiveness of these dictionaries.The present research comparatively analyzes the microstructural organization of two Persian learners’ dictionaries: Farhang-e Zabân’âmuz-e Fârsi barâye Zabân’âmuzân-e Satah-e Moqaddamâti (Zafarzadeh, 2009) and the Farhang-e Zabân’âmuz-e Pishrafte-ye Fârsi (Asi, 2019) (henceforth abbreviated as Z.M. and Z.P. respectively). The goal is to answer the following research questions: Research Questions1. How do the microstructural strategies for presenting lexical information differ between Z.M. (beginner dictionary) and Z.P. (advanced dictionary), and how effectively do they address the needs of their respective learner groups?2. What strengths and weaknesses can be identified in each dictionary’s approach to meaning explanation, example usage, and supplementary semantic information, and what implications do these findings have for improving future Persian learner dictionaries?2. Literature ReviewThe internal structures of learners' dictionaries have been a significant area of study, focusing on how these structures can enhance usability and information retrieval for language learners. The microstructure of a dictionary encompasses various elements contributing to its effectiveness. For instance, foundational studies emphasize that definitions should be structured to facilitate comprehension and correct contextual use (Tomaszczyk, 1981). Along similar lines, Moon (2016) highlights the pedagogical advantage of full-sentence definitional formats, which implicitly model syntactic behavior and collocational patterns.The lexicographic tradition represented by Jackson (2002) has also shaped analytical categories used in this study, including grammatical labeling, lexical relations (synonymy, antonymy, meronymy, hyponymy), and argument structure for verbs. This framework informed both the methodological coding scheme and the interpretation of relative strengths in the two dictionaries. Abu-Risha (2003) further advances the role of semantic relations, particularly synonyms, as meaning clarifiers when they are simpler or more frequent than the target lemma. However, critical perspectives, such as those of Hamdan and Fareh (1997), caution that reliance on synonymy can mislead learners when even subtle semantic-pragmatic distinctions exist between paired terms.Sharifi and Qatre (2019) in their work on definition typologies in Persian lexicography introduced distinctions among analytical, functional, sentential, cluster-based, and metaphor-based definitions, enabling systematic analysis of definitional variation across entries. Meanwhile, Landau (1984) emphasis on the function of examples as syntactic and pragmatic guidance. Together, these theoretical perspectives provide a framework for evaluating the pedagogical orientation of each dictionary and clarify how lexicographic design choices, definition style, microstructural markup, usage labeling, and example density, interface with learner proficiency and linguistic needs. 3. MethodologyThe empirical dataset for this study consisted of 38 lexical entries, each randomly selected to represent one letter of the Persian alphabet. The target lemmas ranged from high-frequency function words to common nouns, verbs, and adjectives, ensuring coverage of diverse lexical categories. One item (omrâ) did not appear in Z.M., reducing the comparative dataset for that dictionary to 37 entries.For each entry, both dictionaries were examined with respect to their microstructural design and the types of linguistic information they provide. The analysis employed established lexicographic criteria drawn from prior scholarship in Persian and general dictionary research. These criteria included orthographic representation, phonological rendering, grammatical classification, lexical category, and argument structure for verbs; morphological categorization of non-verbal entries; pragmatic and usage-related information; semantic exposition and definitional style (analytic, synonymous, functional, extensional, sentential, or cluster-based); lexical relations (synonymy, antonymy, meronymy, hyponymy); collocations and idiomatic expressions; illustrative examples; and the presence of visual support such as images.Each criterion was systematically applied to all selected entries across both dictionaries, enabling item-by-item comparison as well as observation of broader structural tendencies. Representative examples from the two dictionaries are drawn upon in the discussion to illustrate how specific microstructural features are implemented and to highlight practical consequences for learner comprehension.4. ConclusionThis study compared the microstructural architecture of two Persian learner dictionaries designed for different proficiency levels: Z.M. for beginners and Z.P. for advanced learners. The contrast between user profiles proved central to understanding the dictionaries’ divergent design choices.Z.P. prioritizes pragmatic, usage-based support, offering broader sense differentiation, indications of frequency, domain-specific and colloquial labels, and significantly richer coverage of collocations and idioms. Its treatment of homophones and homographs reflects more precise lexicographic modeling, and its extensive system of visual supplements supports complex conceptual associations expected of advanced users.Z.M., meanwhile, adopts a pedagogically oriented approach emphasizing transparent meaning-making through full-sentence definitions, user-addressed explanations, and intensive use of contextualized natural examples. It also provides explicit morphological information such as verb stems and noun countability, and relies on examples rather than formal grammar annotations to communicate argument structure and syntactic behavior. This strategy aligns well with beginner-level cognitive needs and supports gradual internalization of lexical grammar through exposure.The analysis suggests that Z.P. functions as a tool for enhancing depth of lexical competence and sociolinguistic awareness, while Z.M. serves as a scaffold for foundational comprehension and guided language acquisition. More broadly, the findings demonstrate how proficiency-sensitive lexicographic design can shape learners’ engagement with vocabulary, with implications for Persian lexicography as well as learner dictionary design in other languages. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10744.html Dialect glossaries, also known as dialect dictionaries, lexicons, or thesauri in Persian, are lists of the words of a dialect or language accompanied by a set of phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and semantic information. In other words, the entries in these dictionaries consist of words used by a group of people, professionals in a field, or experts in a specific scientific domain. Given the numerous and diverse studies conducted in Iran on local languages and dialects, examining the role of various scientific information and adhering to lexicographical principles in compiling such dictionaries is of great importance. Therefore, this article aims to reference the types of information needed in these works based on Svensen (2009) and relies on research resulting from the compilation of dialect dictionaries and examining similar studies. In other words, the goal of this research is to review the dialect dictionaries published in Iran from the perspective of observing lexicographical principles and to provide suggestions on how to compile them. After reviewing and analyzing data in various dictionaries, the following results were obtained: Dialect research in this area is not conducted with a consistent, uniform, and standard method. Furthermore, considering that, in addition to linguists, enthusiasts of culture and language, such as experts in anthropology, literature, sociology, etc., also engage in compiling dialect works, it is necessary to apply lexicographical and linguistic principles and methods in compiling such works to make these studies more precise and scientific.1. IntroductionThis study focuses on analyzing dialect dictionaries and lexical sources published in recent decades under titles such as “dictionary,” “lexicon,” “glossary,” and “dialect treasury.” These works typically provide lists of dialectal words along with phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and semantic information, and their entries consist of words or expressions used by specific communities or specialists. Local languages and dialects are rapidly declining, and their disappearance entails the loss of significant cultural heritage. To keep linguistic diversity alive and to follow the history of languages, it is important to document and put together dialect dictionaries. The present study aims to evaluate how scientific and reliable these dictionaries are and how their content can be improved to better achieve their goals.Given the increasing number of studies on dialects—from articles and theses to dictionaries and grammatical descriptions—examining the role of linguistic information and adherence to lexicographic principles is crucial. Although lexicography is viewed by some as a branch of applied linguistics, by others as part of theoretical linguistics, or even as an independent field, its close relationship with linguistics is undeniable. Drawing on Svensén (2009), this article analyses the linguistic and lexicographic information included in Iranian dialect dictionaries to determine whether it has been systematically compiled and what types of data are necessary for greater accuracy and scientific rigour. The findings can contribute to typological studies, historical linguistics, phonetic research, and semantic investigations.2. Literature ReviewDialect dictionaries are specialized resources that systematically present the vocabulary of a specific dialect, language, or linguistic variety. They typically include phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and semantic information, some essential for documentation, while others are optional depending on the dictionary’s purpose. Dabirmoghaddam’s (1999) definitions provide a conceptual foundation: a language consists of varieties whose speakers cannot understand each other; a dialect comprises mutually intelligible varieties with differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar; and an accent is distinguished mainly by phonetic and phonological features despite mutual intelligibility.The history of dialect research is long-standing. Joseph Wright’s English Dialect Dictionary (1898–1905), a six-volume work with around 70,000 entries, remains a seminal reference in historical dialectology, representing one of the earliest systematic efforts to document regional varieties. Earlier, in 1775, Russian ethnographer S. G. Gmelin studied Iranian languages, including Gilaki, highlighting the longstanding scholarly interest in dialect documentation.In Iranian linguistics, Sadeq Kia is regarded as a foundational figure, often called “the father of Iranian dialectology,” for his systematic fieldwork beginning in 1961. Nonetheless, studies of Iranian dialects predate Kia, including Fouadi’s 1935 article Language and Dialect and Mohammad Moqaddam’s publications in 1935 and 1939, marking significant early contributions.Recent research, such as Sabzalipour and Nikgohar (2014), emphasizes the distinctive role of dialect dictionaries within lexicography, using Gilaki as a case study to illustrate the methodological challenges of documenting regional lexical systems and the importance of preserving linguistic diversity. Sana’ati et al. (2015) note that dialect dictionaries provide not only linguistic data—phonetic, semantic, and morphological—but also extralinguistic insights, including cultural, social, and pragmatic aspects. By documenting both linguistic and cultural elements, dialect dictionaries facilitate the study of language change over time, making them invaluable for diachronic and historical linguistic research.3. MethodologyThis study was conducted using a library-based and descriptive-analytical approach, with data extracted from the microstructure sections of 24 dialect dictionaries or lexicons. The main purpose of employing content analysis and library methods was to achieve scientific results and address the research questions. The data were examined through identification, classification, and interpretation. The selected dictionaries, published from several decades ago to recent years, were chosen randomly. Features and compilation methods of different sections varied. The structure and content of each dictionary depend on its intended use and users’ needs, and the data collection methods are adjusted accordingly.4. ResultsFor the purpose of data analysis, according to Svensén (2009), the following information items can be found in a bilingual dictionary, a category that includes dialect dictionaries:Table 1: Classification of Information Items in a Bilingual/Dialect Dictionary (Based on Svensén 2009)Main CategorySubcategorySubcategory4.1. Formal Features4.1.1. Orthography4.1.2. Pronunciation4.1.2.1. Phonetic Form4.1.2.2. Coordination Between Pronunciation and Transcription4.1.2.3. Pronunciation Variants4.1.2.4. Stress4.1.3. Morphology4.1.3.1. Inflectional Forms4.1.3.2. Word-Formation Elements4.2. Semantic Information 4.2.1. Equivalents 4.2.1.1. Grammatical Category Agreement 4.2.1.2. Use of Standard Language in Equivalents 4.2.1.3. Definition Patterns 4.2.1.4. Sense Discrimination4.3. Collocational Features 4.3.1. Grammatical Category4.4. Pragmatic Features | 4.4.1. Illustrations 4.4.2. Examples 4.4.3. Labels4.5. Additional Information| 4.5.1. Encyclopedic Information 4.5.2. Etymological Information6. ConclusionThis research investigates the linguistic and lexicographical information included in 24 Iranian dialect dictionaries, analyzed according to Svensén's framework (2009). The main goal was to determine whether a uniform and coherent method is followed in compiling these dictionaries and to what extent attention is paid to providing essential linguistic and lexicographical data.Unfortunately, the results revealed that the compilation of existing dialect dictionaries in Iran lacks a specific pattern and methodological consistency. Furthermore, a significant portion of these works fail to adhere to fundamental lexicographical principles, and they do not properly present the necessary linguistic and lexicographical information. Based on this, the study concludes that three vital categories of information must be provided simultaneously to compile a principled dialect glossary:1) General or dialectal information (accessible by ordinary individuals and researchers),2) Linguistic information (covering phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic aspects) which requires specialized explanation,3) Lexicographical information (related to organizing the dictionary's structure based on user needs and its objectives).These findings, which emphasize the importance of adhering to lexicographical standards, can serve as a valuable guide for dialectologists and individuals concerned with the documentation of the mother tongue and local dialects in Iran. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10745.html The subject of this research was the analysis of specialized lexical units in monolingual general dictionaries. What are the criteria for including scientific entries in monolingual general dictionaries? How are terms processed in general dictionaries? What fields are considered specialized? What specialized units from each field are included in general dictionaries? How are the sense divisions of specialized entries represented? Answering these questions highlighted some theoretical aspects of lexicography and revealed the complexity of its distinction from terminology science. The place of neologisms in the language of science and the continuous movement of lexical units from specialized language to general language and the specialization of general units raise concepts such as lexical circulation and semantic circulation in the field of monolingual and bilingual general dictionaries. Dictionaries are considered a representation of the synchronic space of the speakers of each language. Scientific and specialized lexical units also undergo lexico-conceptual permeability from their own fields and, by being included in monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, follow their indigenization path. Some of them remain in the form of loanwords and, with phonetic or morphological changes, accept the lineage of the target language, while others are deleted from dictionaries over time because of socio-historical developments. The most important issue in this regard is the natural circulation of these lexical units in monolingual general dictionaries and the linguistic and conceptual changes that occur with their inclusion in these dictionaries. The present research was analyzed in Persian monolingual general dictionaries, but in some cases, corresponding English and French entries were also mentioned for deeper analysis.1. IntroductionA significant percentage of the lemmata in monolingual general dictionaries are special or specialized lexical units. The inclusion of specialized terms in general dictionaries dates back to the seventeenth century. In the field of English lexicography, the New World of English Words, or A General English Dictionary, was one of the first reference works to include these lexical units in the form of entries. An important issue in monolingual general dictionaries is that it is not possible to determine the exact number of scientific terms in these dictionaries, because the specialization of lexical units is considered with different criteria in dictionaries. From this perspective, the organization of the macrostructure of dictionaries is also important, and the larger the dictionary, the more scientific terms they contain. Today, the increase in science and technology entries in monolingual general dictionaries is due to users' greater attention to scientific issues. Modern monolingual dictionaries have become more encyclopedic in their function, and this has led to a lack of complete processing of general words in them. 2. Literature ReviewTo examine the background in this field, the most practical method is to examine and analyze the style guides of different dictionaries and examine the reasons for choosing scientific lexical units. From this perspective, examining French and English dictionaries reveals the importance of scientific and technical words in general monolingual dictionaries. Jean Pruvost (2008, pp. 9-11) provides a detailed history of the evolution and inclusion of these two concepts in the French language. For the first time, Maurice de la Porte used the word “terme” in the sixteenth century (1571) in the sense of “borne” from the Latin root “terminus”. In fact, at that time, “terme” had been proposed in the sense of specific limits in space and time. However, with the evolution of the Latin word “terminus” to “that which limits the meaning (of a word)”, the use of “terme” was also limited to the meaning of “special word”, in a specific subject area. This new semantic development was finally included by Richelet in his “Le Dictionnaire françois” (1680).In the history of science, the adjective form of the term terminologische was first introduced in 1788 by Christian Gottfried Schütz in the sense of “the science of terms”, as distinct from the science of language. The term terminology was used in English in 1801, while the corresponding concept of nomenclature had been coined about a century earlier. It is noteworthy that the inclusion of the entry “terminology” dates back to 1842, in the Complément du Dictionnaire de l’Académie, in the sixth edition of the Dictionnaire de l’Académie (1835).3. Discussion In the field of football news and, to a lesser extent, in some other sports, two new neologisms, namely, “hijack” and “comeback”, are used with specific lexicographic features, the processing of which is relevant to the subject of this article: First, these two concepts belong to the field of sports in terms of synchronicity and should be included in the dictionary. Second, these two concepts have spread metaphorically from other fields to football, and those fields should also receive specialized labels. Third, these two are considered loanwords. Fourth, the equivalents of these two words can be found, and the equivalents themselves are considered neologisms. Fifth, these words have only been used metaphorically in English sports texts, not in the original language's dictionaries in the sense of football division. Examples of this kind indicate a continuous and permanent rotation between general languages and specialized languages in the interdisciplinary field. In other words, the processes of terminologization, determinologization, and reterminologization have occurred linearly in these concepts. The order of these processes is probably not predicted to be the same in the Persian and English languages.4. ConclusionThis descriptive study has mentioned some aspects of the characteristics of generalized lemmata in sciences and technologies. General monolingual dictionaries do not adopt the same procedures in the face of the constant movement of general and specialized lexical units. Processes such as terminologization, determinologization, and reterminologization confirm these basic points in the selection of science-based entries:1. Many scientific entries are also general lexical units;2. Scientific entries face two historical challenges that span different time periods. In some cases, with the evolution of concepts between different sciences, with a new concept and a new lexical label, they accept another specialized label in the process of re-terminologization. Occasionally they are the result of the obsolescence of old concepts, their elimination, and the emergence of new concepts and equivalents.3. Just as some general language entries in dictionaries accept the labels of historical, old, and obsolete, scientific and technical lexical units also accept these labels in the concept of the historical evolution of knowledge;4. Neologisms always receive scientific and technical labels in general dictionaries. The application of neologisms is sometimes associated with the emergence of new technologies, sometimes with global events such as wars and epidemics, or is the product of the combination of science and everyday life;5. General and specialized languages have unclear boundaries for various reasons. Therefore, the selection of specialized labels in general monolingual dictionaries mainly depends on the needs of users, the perspective of the lexicographer, and the sociocultural dimensions of the language in question;6. Some dictionaries first place specialized areas in a general classification and then present details under them. General areas include education, culture and society, science, and everyday life issues;7. All of the neoclassical compounds used in European languages ​​are part of the scientific and technical lexical units in the general dictionaries of those languages. The repetition of these lexical units in Persian dictionaries occurs either in the form of loanwords or equivalent neologisms in corresponding concepts, all of which accept subject area labels;8. The common and general classification of non-general lexical units can be expressed as follows: a) lexical units of academic disciplines such as the lemmata of pure and fundamental sciences and the lemmata of social sciences; b) technical-based lexical units such as the lemmata of technical and technological fields; c) historical and etymological terms; d) usage-based terms; e) terms from a linguistic perspective, special features of the language of science; c) lexical units from the perspective of the level of specialization and g) social network vocabulary. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10746.html In this article, we address the converb construction in the Persian language, which has not received much attention from previous researchers. By definition, a converb construction is a deranked adverbial clause with a nonfinite verb which modifies a verb, a clause or a sentence. Persian employs five strategies to make this construction: masdar, verbal nominalization, the suffix “-e” after the past stem of the verb, the suffix “-ān” after the present stem of the verb, and reduplication. We have also demonstrated why the converb clause is a subordinate clause and we have discussed different criteria to distinguish subordination from coordination. Moreover, we have discussed the distinction of this construction from similar constructions, such as depictive construction and cosubordinate clauses. Depictive construction is a kind of secondary predication construction and cosubordination has features of both subordination and coordination. This article presents a new categorization of subordinate clauses in Persian based on typological findings.1. IntroductionThis paper provides a detailed typological and structural analysis of the converb construction in the Persian language, a grammatical phenomenon that is largely overlooked in previous research. The study systematically defines converbs, distinguishes them from similar constructions, identifies the five primary strategies Persian uses to form them, and situates them within a broader framework of clause typology. 2. Literature ReviewA converb is defined as a nonfinite verb form whose primary function is to mark an adverbial subordinate clause. In simpler terms, it is a "deranked" verb that cannot stand alone as a simple clause but instead forms a dependent clause that modifies a main verb, clause, or entire sentence, providing information about time, manner, cause, condition, etc.The theoretical groundwork is done by Haspelmath (1995), König (1995), and Nedjalkov (1995). The author adopted Haspelmath's definition: "a converb is a nonfinite verb form whose main function is to mark adverbial subordination." This definition emphasizes two core features: nonfiniteness (lack of tense, mood, and agreement markers) and the adverbial subordinate function.The paper's central thesis is that Persian possesses and productively uses this construction, employing five distinct morphosyntactic strategies to create it. The goals are to describe these strategies, demonstrate why converb constructions are subordinate clauses, and differentiate them from other similar structures like depictives and co-subordinate clauses.3. MethodologyTo understand converbs, the paper first explains the distinction between semantic content and discourse function. Words have core semantic meanings, object (e.g., "glass"), property (e.g., "thin"), and action (e.g., "break"). However, in a sentence, these words take on specific discourse functions: reference (what is being talked about), modification (additional information about a referent), and predication (the main information being conveyed about the referent). The "unmarked" or prototypical alignment is:* Object content used for Reference ("the carpet")* Property content used for Modification ("a beautiful carpet")* Action content used for Predication ("The carpet broke").A non-prototypical or "marked" usage occurs when an action word is used for a role other than predication. For instance, when an action is used for reference or modification, it creates a deranked, nonfinite structure. This is crucial for understanding converbs: they are instances where an action (a verb) is used for the discourse function of adverbial modification, leading to its deranked, nonfinite form.The present author also outlines clause complexity. In complex sentences with subordination, there is an asymmetrical relationship between the main clause (which is asserted and can be negated or questioned) and the subordinate clause (which is non-asserted). Subordinate clauses can be balanced (the verb is finite, similar to an independent clause) or deranked (the verb is nonfinite, unlike an independent clause). Converbs belong to the latter category.This asymmetrical relationship is further explained using the cognitive concepts of Figure and Ground. The main clause represents the Figure—the focal, moving event—while the subordinate adverbial clause (including converbs) represents the Ground—the reference point or background against which the main event is understood.4. Discussion Adverbial clauses in general can be either balanced (using finite verbs and conjunctions like "because," "when," "so that") or deranked. Converbs are the primary means of forming deranked adverbial clauses. A key distinction is made between three types of deranked subordinate clauses, differentiated by their discourse role:1. Action Nominal (Verbal Noun): A deranked verb used for Reference, often serving as the subject or object of a sentence (e.g., "Traveling is enjoyable").2. Action Adjectival (Participle): A deranked verb used for modification of a noun, functioning like a relative clause (e.g., "The man wearing a green shirt").3. Converb (Verbal Adverb): A deranked verb used for adverbial modification of a verb or clause (e.g., "He entered, laughing").This three-way distinction clarifies that converbs are specifically defined by their adverbial function.The five morphological strategies Persian uses to create converbs are identified as follows:1. The Infinitive (Masdar): The most common strategy, formed by adding the suffix "-an" to the past stem of the verb (e.g., "raftan" from "to go"). While traditionally debated as either a noun or a verb, the paper argues that when used in adverbial phrases, it functions as a nonfinite verb in a deranked clause.(1) ba’d-e raftan-e Ali, beyn-e bače-hā dava šod.After Ali's leaving, a fight broke out among the kids.2. Verbal Nouns (esm-e Masdar): These are nominalized verbs that do not use the "-an" suffix (e.g., "pazireš" - acceptance, "zāyemān" - childbirth). They can similarly be used in adverbial phrases.(2) dar moqe zāyemān, pezešk bālāye sar-e mādar hāzer nabud.During childbirth, the doctor was not present by the mother's side.3. The suffix "-e" (after the past stem): This suffix attaches to the past stem, creating a form traditionally called a "vajhe vasfi" The paper argues that this label is misleading, as its function is often adverbial, not adjectival.(3) Ali, rang-o-ru paride, be kelās vāred šod.Ali, pale-faced, entered the classroom.4. The suffix "-ān" (after the present stem): This suffix creates adverbs of manner, directly forming converbs that describe how an action is performed.(4) pirmard asāzan-ān be ketāb-xāne vāred šod.The old man entered the library, leaning on his cane / cane-leaning.Reduplication: This strategy involves repeating a word, often one already derived using the "-ān" suffix, to intensify the manner meaning.(5) bače-hā larzān-larzān be kelās vāred šodand.The children entered the classroom, trembling.The paper emphasizes that all five strategies result in a nonfinite verb form that serves an adverbial, subordinate function, thus fitting the definition of a converb.A significant part of the analysis is devoted to differentiating converbs from two other constructions that may appear similar.A. Depictive Construction: This is a secondary predication within a simple clause that describes the state of a participant during the main action. For example, in "He was born blind," "blind" is a depictive secondary predicate. It describes the subject's state ("he") simultaneously with the event of being born. Crucially, this is not a subordinate clause; there is no separate verb, and the adjective ("blind") is not nonfinite. It modifies a noun (the participant), whereas a converb modifies the verb or the entire clause.B. Cosubordinate Construction: This structure involves a chain of clauses where nonfinite verbs (often with the "-e" suffix) are linked by a conjunction like "and," sharing the tense, mood, and agreement of the final, finite verb.(6) u name rā nevešte va post kard.He wrote the letter and mailed it.Here, "nevešte" is nonfinite, but the clause is not subordinate. It is not embedded within the main clause; instead, the two clauses are in a symmetrical, chaining relationship. This is called "cosubordination," a blend of coordination and subordination, distinct from the clear subordination of a converb.5. ConclusionIn conclusion, the paper argues that Persian has a robust system of converbs, defined as deranked, nonfinite adverbial subordinate clauses. It systematically presents the five morphological strategies—Infinitive, Verbal Noun, Suffix "-e", Suffix "-ān", and Reduplication—that the language employs to form them. The study makes a clear theoretical contribution by rigorously distinguishing converbs from depictive secondary predicates and cosubordinate constructions. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10747.html In Iranian folk short stories, such as the other classical narratives around the world, narratives are formed around the axis of meaning and characters turn to subjects, when having of something becomes important for them, and start an action process to achieve that thing. Thus, as much as subjects in these stories, there are narratives in which subject follows a way to produce meaning. but the important matter is that these subjects, regarding to their main or secondary role in a narrative, how they succeed in producing meaning, that’s why in this research with descriptive- analytic and statistical method, based on discourse semi- semantic view in classical narratives, which is a sub branch of Semantics in Linguistics, 201 Iranian folk short stories are considered that are common around the Iran and Seyyed Abolghasem Enjavi Shirazi has collected them in a four volume collection: Arousak va Sang-e Sabour, Dokhtar-e Narenj va Toranj, Gol Ba Senowbar Ch-e Kard, Gol-e Boumad. In this research the result of action processes of 661 subjects for producing meaning is analyzed. findings show that the result of action processes of subjects which are put in five category: ordinary, average, special, legendary and mythical and two main and secondary positions, have three feedbacks: producing of meaning, repairing and proving of meaning, destroying and death od meaning. In between, producing of meaning and repairing and proving of meaning, in respect, have the most and the least frequency among these subjects. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10467.html The present study was an attempt to run a discourse analysis of the dispatch advertisements appearing in the Iranian newspapers. Irrespective of the sub-cultural differences, religious diversity, and variations in beliefs, Iranians have traditionally paid special attention to their deceased and the funerals. Obituaries have always been an indispensable part of funerals and ceremonies and are usually used to announce the death of the deceased dears passing away through the press and other media in attempt to release the news to almost all the relatives and friends and then take the measures related to the funeral and burial. To do the study, following a thorough review of the related literature, fifty frequently appearing obituaries in three famous Iranian newspapers were selected in two consecutive weeks in August, 2024.The discourse analysis criterion was based on Wiśniewski (2006), and various discourse features along with lexical, syntactic, semantic, and stylistic analyses were taken into consideration. The results revealed that dispatch advertisements appearing in the Iranian newspapers enjoy syntactic diversity, phonological harmony, and a rhythmic language, to which is added the taste of Persian literature and religious beliefs. Cultural, social, familial, and other personal features of the deceased is discernable thorough analyzing the published and printed advertisements. This discourse which represents a carefully designed communication between the advertisers and the audience employs both direct and indirect ways of exchanging a lot of information in an almost limited number of words, a limited space, and in a reader-friendly manner enjoying a simple language. The findings of the present study might be employed in the cross-cultural studies, discourse analysis research, and linguistic surveys in general and studies on Iranian culture of funerals, ceremonies, and obituaries in particular.1. IntroductionIncluding different text types and attracting a large audience (such as advertisements and death notices), “newspaper effectively mirror the contemporary language and culture” (Rademann, 1998, p. 49). Some studies of linguistic variables also note how they can organize text types (auf dem Keller, 2004; Fries, 1990; Gieszinger, 2000; Makinen, & Raisamo (2008). Corpus-based studies of particular linguistic features often help to characterize newspaper text types: Marzol (2006, p. 79) found that ''modality correlated with specific news contexts''. Different scholars have attended to the development of newspaper text classes (Fries, 2001) e.g. death notices (Fries, 1990, 2006). According to Chaudhry et al. (2014), ''obituary announcements are community oriented social texts authored according to certain accepted and established social and, in many cases, religious conventions'' (p. 29). The existing literature reveals that obituary and death announcements (DAs) constitute a fertile ground for the use of linguistic and literary devices (Bressler, 2009; Fernandez, 2006, 2007; Nelson, 2009; Rubinstein, 2007). Thus, the present study makes an attempt to analyze the specific discourse connected to death notices (or obituaries) in the Iranian context.Research Question(s)What are the prominent discourse features of dispatch advertisements in Iranian newspapers?2. Literature ReviewObituaries are presented in a way to create grief in the audience and appreciate the deceased (Askildson, 2007; Bryant & Peck, 2009; Fernandez, 2007). Obituary announcements belong to what Enkvist (1987) calls the family of ''template texts'' which are defined by him (Enkvist, 1987, quoted in Nwoye, 1992, p. 18) as texts ''whose macro structure is set in advance, and where the text producer, so to say, enters new data into pre-existing gaps, as when filling a hotel registration card or an income-tax return''.Diverse studies have been carried out on death announcements (DAs). While some scholars like Al-Ali (2005), Fernandez (2006, 2007), and Marzol (2006) investigated their figurative language, others like Eid (2000), Booth (2002), and Nwoye (2007) concentrated on the structure of the DA genre and factors that influence its language. For example, Kachru (1992) examines the linguistic features of the use of peculiar traditional references to death in Indian English. He observes that the context of the culture necessitates the use of indirectness in reference to death in Indian Obituary announcements. From another point of view, many existing analyses use obituaries to understand other social processes that involve living in the social world as opposed to leaving it upon death (Phillips, 2007). With attention to length, thematic, editorial, and journalistic considerations, researchers have illuminated issues of racism, sexism, homophobia, ageism, class, ethnicity, and professional status and image (Eid, 2002; Kastenbaum, Peyton, & Kastenbaum, 1977; Kearl, 1986; Knutson, 1981; Marks & Piggee, 1998; Maybury, 1995; Moremen & Cradduck, 1999; Moses & Marelli, 2003; Spilka, Lacey, & Gelb, 1980; Williams, 1997). Ergin (2009) also suggested that death announcements in the Turkish context reflect attitudes toward gender, ethnic/religious minority status and cultural capital, and echoing the aggregate efforts of privileged groups to maintain a particular self-image.Obituaries are products of the values of the societies in which they originate (Durkheim, 1912 [1995]). Starck’s (2005) comparative analysis shows how the obituary, as ritual, is constructed differently in the United States, Great Britain, and Australia. Those analyses also deal with issues of discrimination, inequality, and marginalized identities (Halbur & Vandagriff, 1987; Hume, 2000; Moremen & Cradduck, 1998). In other cases, researchers have considered the effects of epidemiological concerns—often AIDS or cancer—to determine how society appraises the individual characteristics of a particular class of decedent (Alali, 1994; Cameron, Playfair, & Wellum, 1994). Todua (2014) also believes that ''the very middle class is the main promoter of change, both social and linguistic, with their inclination to move upwards towards the upper class. Hence, the middle class sees in obituaries patterns of achievement, accomplishments, and success stories'' (p. 64).The important research available dealing with the gender-sensitive issue belongs to Kastenbaum et al. (1976), Spilka et al. (1980), Kearl (1986), Halbur and Vandagriff (1987), Maybury (1995), Eid (2002), Rodler et al. (2002) and Ogletree et al. (2005). The studies of these researchers mainly intend to gauge the representation and projection of both genders in obituarial discourses under the assumption that gender-based partialities perpetuate after death. Chaudhry, Christopher, and Krishnasamy (2014) suggested that males not only get more obituaries in Pakistan but also get added projection when compared to females. However, the qualitative interviews revealed that the observed differences in the death reportage of both genders did not purely fall in the line of gender discrimination. Males got situational advantage due to the factors like familial traditions, religious beliefs, cultural traditions and socioeconomic environments.3. MethodologyTo answer the research question above both, discourse analysis and content analysis of 50 dispatch advertisements appearing in two consecutive weeks in August 2019 in the Iranian newspapers, namely Keyhan, Etelaat, and Hamshari, which are among the most famous Iranian newspapers and rich enough in obituaries, were taken into consideration. As discourse analysis based on Carter (1997, p.23), “is a primarily linguistic study examining the use of language by its native population whose major concern is investigating language functions along with its forms, produced both orally and in writing”, the present study mainly focused on the discourse of dispatch advertisements considering various lexical, syntactic, semantic, and stylistic discourse features presented by Wiśniewski (2006) as the main criteria for discourse analysis in discourse studies. In line with the main discourse features mentioned, cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativeness, situationality, and intertextuality features were also taken into consideration.4. ResultsThe data collected were put into discourse analysis and the following syntactic, lexical, semantic, and stylistic discourse features were presented: A. Syntactic Features and CohesionConsidering syntactic features, obituaries analyzed are of two types; syntactically cohesive and syntactically non-cohesive: The first group mostly includes complete sentences enjoying verbs, they are unmarked, and follow the standard structure of the Persian language. Such advertisements represent syntactic normality. The following obituaries of which the dates and names have been deliberately omitted represent syntactically firm, cohesive, and acceptable structures. The first part of each table shows the original Persian version of the obituary and the second part represents its translation in English. Table1. Dispatch Advertisement in Keyhan News (Wed, 20 August, 2024)Bāzgashte hame be sūye oostbā nahāyate ta’asof va ta’asor, dargozashte shādravān……...rā beh etelā’e koliye-ye dūstān, bastegān va āshenāyān miresānad. beh hamin monāsebat majlese tarhime ān marhūm, rūz-e seh shenbeh…..., dar………......, bargozār migardad. sherkat-e shomā sarvarān-e moa’zam mowjeb-e tasali-ye khāter-e bāzmāndegān khāhad būd. Khanevādehay-e………...va sāyer-e bastegānEverybody Returns to HimWhile being full of sorrows and sadness, we announce the death of the lamented……….and inform all the relatives, friends, those familiar, and the like of his/ her passing away. To remember him/her a ceremony will be held on ……(date)….in……(place)…...Your attending the ceremony will surely show your sympathy with the mourning ones and those losing him.……………………families and other relatives Table 2. Advertisement in Hamshahri News (Tuesday, 19 August, 2024)Dear Mr.…….Hereby, we pay our deep condolence and sympathy to you and your dear family for your dear father’s passing away, and would ask God, the Almighty to place him in the heaven and provide you with enough patience to tolerate his death. Signed and named by co-workers. Jenāb-e āghāy-e …………Dargozasht-e pedar-e gerāmiyetān rā beh jenābeāli va khānevādey-e mohtaram tasliat arz nemūdeh va az khodāy-e mota’āl barāy-e ān marhūm talab-e maghafarat va barāy-e shomā sabr va shakibā’i mas’alat minemāím. az taraf-e hamkārān dar .........................The second group of obituaries includes non-cohesive syntactic structures; such advertisements include incomplete sentences, pieces of poems, and extracts of literary works. They also represent a sort of syntactic deviation from the norms. The following example best shows such an advertisement.Table 3. Advertisement in Hamshahri News (Thursday, 28 August, 2024)Oh, My Dear ……Alas, Alas, …..So pretty a spring fades away,So nice a flower falls on the earth,So sympathetic a heart fades in blooming.Hereby, I remember your first year of leaving and sorrowful passing…Your sister…….azizam............darīghā, darīghā, ...cheh bāghcheí pazhmordcheh goli oftād bar khāk, cheh deli raft beh bād!barādram, gerāmi midāram yekomin sāl-e dargozasht-e ghamangizt rākhāharat.......................It is worth mentioning that in both cohesive and non-cohesive types of obituaries a sort of syntactic harmony could be found. Such a harmony represents a morpho-syntactic feature as relies on the phonological, prosodic, and melodic sounds of the Persian language; expressions such as ‘ensāni vārasteh and delkhasteh, goli pajmordeh, marhūme-ye maqhfiūreh, and mādary āshegh and hamsari lāyegh’ represent a melodic, rhythmic, and prosodic based verbal language. B. Lexical Features and CoherenceThe lexicon used in the Persian obituaries is in line with the standard language and shows no deviation from the norms. Throughout the advertisements one can see a sort of lexical cohesion or coherence as different words used in the obituaries show a united form, something which shapes a meaningful whole. Using the words death, sorrow, sadness, passing away, patience, tolerance, remnants, feel upset, God gives and takes back”, and the like best show the coherence of such advertisements.C. Semantic FeaturesOne of the prominent features of funeral ads and condolences in Iranian newspapers is that despite the relatively large number of words and phrases formally used in them, they almost represent the same semantic value. For example, words such as deceased, late, late lamented, passed away, and the one who left us, equal to the deceased person who has died there. The following words and phrases that are derived from these advertisements best show synonymy of the words and expressions used in Farsi:“Be didare hagh raftan, be malakoute aala peivastan, raftan, mordan, parvaz kardan, orouje malakouti and didare haghtalaa”, which might be cautiously translated into English as, adhering to God, ascension, flight, demise, lover arrival, the trip to go to, sleep forever, going to the divine mercy, and join to the majority.D. Stylistic FeaturesTwo different but related stylistic features are observed in the Iranian obituaries: formal and literacy. The former includes the formal language written in contemporary Persian, while the latter is full of literary work extracts, poems, innovations, informal talks and the like. Table 3 above is best likely to show these two styles.E. Final Discourse AnalysisIt seems that dispatch advertisements in Iranian newspapers create a discourse between the advertisers and the audience who are parties to this debate. The audience notices the funeral and condolences and could be of two individual groups; specific audience who either keeps a relation to the deceased or is a friend to them and the general public who just read the advertisement. The purpose of obituary is informing, paying condolences to the relatives and acquaintances, sympathizing with the deceased family member, and notifying the funeral.F. Direct and Indirect Modes and InformativenessThe notification and exchange of information in such advertisements is both direct (explicit) and indirect (implicit). The following sentences are taken from various ads, and best show this notion:Table 4. Advertisement in Etelaat Newspaper (Wednesday, 27 August, 2024)TypeEnglish TranslationPersianDirectHereby it is announced that ………. has passed away. This is to inform his relatives, family members, and acquaintances.badinvasileh dargozasht-e shādarvan.................rā beh etelā’-e dūstān, āshnāyān va bastegān miresānad .DirectBeing full of sorrows and feeling highly regretful, we say condolence to our friend’s family for his passing.bā ta’asof va ta’asor-e farāvān dargozasht-e dūst va hamkār-e azizemān...............rā beh khānevāde-ye mohtaramash tasliyat arz minamā’im.IndirectThe robber of the times took away our unique diamond and robbed us of his presence.daste jafā pishe-yeh rūzgār, gouhari kamyāb rā az mahfel-e mā beh tārāj bord .IndirectThe destroying hand of death caught my discerned friend, there is no way, his sad flying made us feel regretted. ….dast-e virāngar-e marg, dūst va hamkār-e farzāneh’am rā robūd. az taqdīr garīzi nīst. Parvāz-e ghamangizash rā beh hamsar-e arjmand va farzandān-e gerāmi-yeshān tasliyat migūím va feghdānash rā beh sūg mineshinim.The difference between these two modes in the advertisements can be sought in the local tastes and the deceased’s relatives’ interest in using these two different methods. The purpose, however, is to respect and protect the dignity of the survivors and relatives. The indirect form is more prevalent in showing such a respect, though the direct form shows no offence to the deceased or his/her relatives and is frequently used in the dispatch advertisements. 5. Discussion Considering what was mentioned, the readers can come to know that funeral notices and condolences, with the use of verbal and nonverbal signs affect the audience and provide him/her with a lot of information about the individual who has passed away. Among other components, such as goals, attitudes and views of the participant advertisers and audiences, cultural, social, familial, and religious features are represented through the dispatch advertisements. Obituaries appearing in the Iranian newspapers and consequently in the Iranian social context create a special discourse which is worth researching and introducing.Funeral ads condolences include and convey explicit and implicit information in addition to verbal and nonverbal cues to the audience by offering the total customs related to death, such as holding funerals and mourning, condolences as well as sympathy and bereavement. To a non-native covering Persian obituaries, the obituary discourse is a discourse based on very complex language features, which is intensified by the non-verbal signs like photos and colors. Though this language is not far different from ordinary language of the people living in contemporary Iran, its special use and specific application has formed a discourse which needs recognition and understanding. Using all elements of communication, along with normal language and special getaways of language, this special discourse creates an atmosphere the analysis of which requires the analysis of all components and elements of advertising, such as language, image, color, meta-language, role, status, etc. 6. ConclusionDispatch advertisements appearing in the Iranian newspapers enjoy syntactic diversity, phonological harmony, and a rhythmic language, to which is added the taste of Persian literature and religious beliefs. Cultural, social, familial, and other personal features of the deceased is discernable thorough analyzing the published and printed advertisements. This discourse which represents a carefully designed communication between the advertisers and the audience employs both direct and indirect ways of exchanging a lot of information in an almost limited number of words, a limited space, and in a reader-friendly manner enjoying a simple language. The findings of the present study might be employed in the cross-cultural studies, discourse analysis research, and linguistic surveys in general and studies on Iranian culture of funerals, ceremonies, and obituaries in particular. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10748.html Definition has long been a subject of interest for scholars across various disciplines. Given the pivotal role of definition in language and communication, examining and classifying its various types holds significant importance. Despite numerous studies, a comprehensive and unified classification of definition types appears to be lacking. This research aims to provide a relatively comprehensive and systematic classification of definition types that can accommodate the diversity of perspectives in this field. Additionally, this study examines deficient types of definitions and introduces their classification. This qualitative research was conducted using desk research and descriptive methods. Definitions were collected from various online and printed sources. The results of this research indicate that the primary features used in existing classifications of definition types are generally based on two approaches: function and style. However, these classifications have not fully addressed all aspects of these approaches. Accordingly, we introduce the Function-Style Classification as a conceptual framework. This research paves the way for a deeper understanding of the concept of definition and its types, serving as a valuable tool not only for lexicographers but also for specialists in various fields of knowledge.1. IntroductionGiven the central role of definitions in lexicography and related disciplines, numerous scholars have attempted to identify, categorize, and standardize different types of definitions. Nevertheless, the absence of a comprehensive and widely accepted taxonomy remains a major challenge, stemming from theoretical diversity and divergent methodological perspectives. This study aims to present an integrative overview of the concept of definition and to review existing typologies in order to address current ambiguities. The paper first explores the structure and key components of definitions to elucidate their semantic and functional roles. It then examines theoretical viewpoints and classification models proposed across disciplines, highlighting their conceptual overlaps and discrepancies. The methodology section outlines the research design and data collection process forming the basis of analysis. Finally, the study proposes the Function–Style Classification of definitions based on linguistic and structural criteria, offering a unified framework for lexicographic and ontology-based applications.1. Literature ReviewThe notion of definition has constituted a central concern throughout the intellectual history of humankind. Socrates is regarded as the first philosopher to underscore the epistemological significance of precise definition, a pursuit further refined by Plato and Aristotle. Since the Aristotelian tradition, debates on the essence, function, and methodology of defining have evolved within philosophical, linguistic, and scientific frameworks (Robinson 1963).1.1. Definition within the Knowledge Domains:Contemporary scholarship—exemplified by Swedberg (2020) and Downie (1994)—reveals that definitions are context-dependent constructs whose form and purpose vary across disciplines such as sociology, law, medicine, and lexicography. These disciplinary distinctions demonstrate that definitional practices embody distinct cognitive and communicative functions.2.2. Approaches to Definition Typology:Atkins and Rundell (2008) adopt a user-oriented lexicographic approach, distinguishing two analytical dimensions of definitions—content (information conveyed) and form (linguistic structure). They identify several definition types, including encoding, decoding, classic, synonym, full-sentence, when-, and short definitions. Riemer (2010) further classifies definitions into real, nominal, extensional, cognitive, ostensive, synonymous, and definition by context.The paper proposes an integrative, cross-disciplinary framework for analyzing definitions, aiming to enhance conceptual coherence, functional clarity, and terminological standardization across scholarly domains.2. MethodologyThis study employed a descriptive–analytical design to achieve a clearer typology of definitions across various textual and lexicographic sources. The data collection encompassed print and digital materials from a variety of disciplines. Following data compilation, the information was refined and cross-referenced to align variant terminologies. A close qualitative analysis identified six recurrent parameters—definer, audience, purpose, context, mode of expression, and structure—which served as the basis for preliminary categorization. Definitions were initially tagged according to these parameters, distinguishing, for example, audience-oriented colloquial definitions from linguistically structured precise ones. Two overarching evaluative criteria were then established: the functional criterion, focusing on communicative, contextual, and pragmatic purposes, and the stylistic criterion. Together, these criteria provide an integrative analytical framework for evaluating and classifying definitions within lexicographic and interdisciplinary research contexts.3. ConclusionThis study offers an in-depth exploration of the conceptual and linguistic complexity of definition as a discursive act shaped by its communicative context. Each definition represents a linguistic operation governed by intricate relational and functional patterns. By examining and classifying definitions through a set of functional and stylistic features, the research proposes a dual typology—functional and stylistic—to illuminate the shared and distinctive characteristics of definitional forms. Although different parameters may yield alternative groupings, such variability underscores the inherently multidimensional nature of definitions rather than signaling inconsistency. The Function–Style Classification thus reflects the complementary relationship between form and purpose, viewing style and function as two interdependent dimensions of meaning-making. Functional definitions emphasize communicative aims, contextual relevance, and pragmatic roles, whereas stylistic definitions highlight the linguistic and structural strategies employed to convey meaning. Rather than opposing categories, they constitute a continuum of definitional strategies. This integrative framework extends beyond formal classification, offering a dynamic analytical model that facilitates comparative studies of definition types across disciplines and supports deeper investigation into the linguistic, cognitive, and socio-cultural dimensions of defining practices.Acknowledgments Many of the definitions presented in this paper were previously submitted to the Terminology Council of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature by the Terminology Technical Committee, whose approved Persian equivalents have been officially adopted. In addition to the authors, the committee includes Marzieh Choupanzadeh, Mahdieh Ghanatabadi, Dr. Farshid Samaei, and Shima Sharifi. The authors gratefully acknowledge their contributions. Responsibility for any errors or inaccuracies in this paper remains solely with the authors. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10749.html Man is familiar with the concept of possession from birth, because he knows all the places and things that belong to him. Accordingly, the concept of possession is encoded in all the languages of the world. There are two concepts involved in possession, which are called possessor and possessed, and the relationship between the two is called possession. Possession is divided into two main groups, nominal and predicate, and has different types including action, location, association, addition, purpose, source, initial and equality possession. In the present study, the expression of possession in the Pashto language has been studied. So far, the category of linguistic possession has not been studied in the Pashto language from the perspective of linguistics and only descriptive references have been made to it. Today, the study of language from a cognitive perspective is at the center of attention of researchers in the field of language; therefore, in this study, we aim to study the encoding of possession in the Pashto language for the first time, based on the collected linguistic corpus, within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In this regard, the schemas of possession expression in Pashto will be introduced and their frequency of occurrence will be given. The corpus of the research is extracted from three best-selling Pashto books and two motion pictures. The results of the research show that in Pashto, the frequency of use of nominal possession is higher than predicate possession, and this is also confirmed for the frequency of occurrence of types of possession. In types of possession, the frequency of occurrence of additional and connecting possession is higher than other possession, and these two types of possession are also encoded in the nominal way. In addition, in Pashto, the equality schema is not used to express possession.1. IntroductionPashto is one of the official languages ​​of Afghanistan, which is also spoken in parts of Pakistan. It is considered as a member of the Eastern Iranian language family. Pashto is related to ancient languages ​​such as Sanskrit and shows structural and syntactic links with other Indo-Aryan languages. Despite the historical background of this language, it has not been studied extensively in linguistics, especially at the global level, and many of its grammatical and structural issues still require more detailed research. One of them is the expression of possession in this language. Possession is one of the most basic concepts that all languages ​​in the world have the means to express. In this regard, the present study examines the linguistic structures of possession in Pashto and attempts to analyze these structures within the framework of cognitive linguistics and based on the model presented by Heine (1997). Previous studies in Pashto have often been limited to a brief description of the category of possession, while this study aims to systematically and analytically extract the possessive schemas in this language and examine their frequency of occurrence. Given the importance of cognitive approaches in contemporary linguistic studies, this study is the first to examine the coding of possession in Pashto from this perspective. The results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of possession structures in Pashto and provide a basis for comparative studies with other languages ​​in the region. Accordingly, the objectives of this study include extracting and examining the types of linguistic constructions encoding possession in Pashto, presenting and analyzing possessive schemas in Pashto, comparing possessive schemas in Pashto with the model presented by Heine (1997), and examining the frequency of occurrence of various possessive structures in Pashto.2. Literature ReviewPrevious studies on possession in Pashto have mainly described linguistic structures and have made less use of cognitive linguistic frameworks. Some studies such as Rashtin (1998) and Khoshaki (2016) have referred to the coding of possession in Pashto, but have not specifically categorized the possessive structures. Also, Momand (2004) and Ziyar (2005) have focused more on possessive pronouns and have examined their grammatical role. Pinzel (2010) has also addressed the means of coding possession, but has limited his study to the Kandahari dialect.In linguistic studies related to Iranian languages, studies such as Sharifi (2009) and Nagzguy Kohan (2016) have examined the strategies of possessive formation in Persian and Taleshi. In particular, Nagzguy Kohan and Maleki (2019) have examined the possessive schemas in Persian and have added a new schema (associative) to Heine’s (1997) model. In addition to these studies, some researchers such as Sharifi and Sabouri (2019) have examined possessive strategies in different varieties of Iranian languages ​​and have shown that these languages ​​use strategies such as demonstrative, contiguity, and conjunction to express possession. In addition, more general research has been conducted on Pashto, which has addressed its grammatical structures and syntactic roles. For example, Dabir-Moghaddam and Mayar (2019) have examined the systems of agreement and case in Pashto and have shown that this language exhibits the characteristics of a dual language (semi-Kenyan) at different times. Also, Miakhil and Dabir Moghadam (1401) have analyzed the case system in Pashto and identified its syntactic features. However, no independent research has been conducted to examine possession in this language based on cognitive frameworks.3. MethodologyIn this study, we seek to extract and examine the types of possessive structures in Pashto based on Heine (1997). In this study, any structure that refers to the relationship between the owner and the owned is categorized as a possessive structure and its type, whether nominal or predicate, is determined, and then its possessive event schema is obtained based on Heine (1997); therefore, it is necessary to collect a linguistic corpus to achieve this goal. In this regard, best-selling fiction books in Pashto were introduced as part of the linguistic corpus of this study. 5. ConclusionPossessiveness is a concept used and encoded in all languages ​​of the world. The relationship between the owner and the owned is called possession. In general, three types of nominal, predicate and external possessive structures are found in the languages ​​of the world. In the nominal possessive structure, the owner and the owned form a noun group, such as “my hand” or “his car”. Usually, this nominal structure covers three types of possessive concepts: legal ownership, whole-to-part relationship and kinship relationships. Predicate possessive refers to the structures in which the possessive relationship appears in the predicate. This is achieved by using various types of possessive verbs, such as “having”, “belonging”, “existential construction” or “spatial construction” with a linking verb.In this study, the types of predicate and nominal possessive types in Pashto were studied and a table of the results was also presented. Now it should be stated which type of possession is used more in Pashto. The frequency of these two types of possession can be seen in the chart below:As is clear from the chart above, in Pashto, nominal possession is used more to express possession. Numerous examples of this possession were found in the corpus. In the table of types of possession, the number of nominal possessions for types of possession is more than predicate possession.In the next study, types of possession in Pashto have been conducted. In the previous sections, types of possession in this language were presented with examples from Pashto compared to examples from Persian. The authors have also obtained the frequency of these possessions based on the corpus. The frequency of types of possession in Pashto is also visible in the chart below:It is clear from the chart above that the highest frequency is for additional and connective possession, and therefore the chart above confirms the results of the previous chart, because these two types of possession are in the category of nominal possession. Finally, it is stated that the Pashto language uses nominal possession the most in possession and among the types of possession, it also uses additional and connective possessions for encoding. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10750.html AbstractIn-depth study into the works of ancient scholars indicates that significant number of words in the Persian language have evolved over the past centuries and have changed in such a way that they have become akin to other words and remained hidden from sights of scholars. This paper explains and conveys a range of words in the Surabadi commentary (from the Konya manuscript) that have experienced sound changes and have become akin to other words in both terms of pronunciation and spelling, which has led to their absence in current Persian dictionaries. The Surabadi commentary written by Aboubakr Atiq Nishaburi dates back to around 470 to 480 Hijri; and contains a significant number of ancient vocabularies and terms, in addition to evolved words of the Persian language, some of which are not found in other Persian poetic and prose works. In this regard, this book is considered as one of the most valuable works in the field of linguistic and lexicological studies. Words that are discussed in this study consist of: āz, oskhūn, aškipâ, batard, xoš, nigaristan, vāy, … . In this study, each of these words is categorized according to their individual phonetic processes.1. IntroductionPersian Qur’anic exegeses constitute a rich corpus for the study of the Persian language and literature. This is because, first, the exegetes’ religious beliefs, and second, their meticulousness and attentiveness to nuances, resulted in highly deliberate choices of Persian equivalents for Arabic lexical items. A number of the authors and scribes of these works, influenced by the regional varieties of their spoken language, incorporated into the written text many words and pronunciations that were common in their vernacular. Among such exegeses is the Tafsīr-i Surābādī, which contains a substantial number of archaic lexemes and constructions, as well as evolved forms of Persian words, some of which do not occur in other Qur’anic exegeses or in the wider body of Persian verse and prose. Moreover, traces of the exegete’s, translator’s, or scribe’s dialect—together with distinctive linguistic features—are evident throughout the text. For these reasons, the book is regarded as one of the most valuable sources for research in Persian linguistics and lexicology. Research Question(s)Based on the objectives of the study, the following research questions were formulated:1. Within which major categories of Persian phonological processes (e.g., epenthesis, elision, etc.) do the phonological changes identified in the Tafsīr-i Surābādī (Konya version) fall?2. Do the evolved or altered lexical items appear in other Persian sources or encyclopedias?2. Literature ReviewSince the identification and introduction of the early manuscripts of Surabadi’s Tafsir, this work has attracted sustained scholarly attention in various forms—such as selections, abridgements, facsimile editions, and critical editions. The earliest publications focused primarily on the narrative sections of the commentary, including the story of Joseph and Zulaykha and the Quranic narratives (Mahdavi, 1968). The publication of the Translation and Stories of the Quran based on the Torbat-e Sheikh Jam manuscript redirected scholarly attention toward the linguistic and translational layers of the work (Mahdavi & Bayani, 1959), while Sabaghian’s Lexicon of the Translation and Stories of the Quran laid the groundwork for lexical research on this text (Sabaghian, 1989). The codicological and linguistic significance of Surabadi’s Tafsir was further underscored by the facsimile publication of the fully vocalized manuscript and by Khanlari’s emphasis on its value for historical studies of the Persian language (Khanlari, 1974). In subsequent decades, Saeidi Sirjani’s critical edition—based on the collation of multiple manuscripts—represented a major step toward access to a relatively comprehensive version of the tafsir. Nevertheless, the absence of an introduction, indices, and analytical lists has continued to leave a significant research gap, particularly in the domains of language and vocabulary (Sirjani, 2002).In recent years, academic papers and theses have increasingly focused on particular elements, including interpretive methods, rhetorical features, specific grammatical constructions, or chosen lexical items (Aali Abasabad, 2011; Resalatpanahi et al., 2021). However, these studies are largely fragmented and limited in scope. To date, no independent and comprehensive study has examined the linguistic characteristics of Surabadi’s Tafsir in an integrated manner across phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical levels. Consequently, despite the distinguished position of this tafsir in the history of Persian prose, a systematic analysis of its language remains a major gap in Quranic studies and in the historical linguistics of Persian.3. MethodologyThe present research falls into the category of descriptive–analytical studies, conducted through a documentary (library-based) approach. Combined with intratextual analysis. Data collection was carried out through library research and note-taking. In the present study, the lexical items and their phonetic forms in the Konya version of the Tafsīr-i Surābādī were first accurately described. Subsequently, through analysis of these data and comparison with the standard or more archaic forms—drawing on other archaic Persian texts when necessary—the phonological rules and processes underlying these developments were identified and explicated.4. DiscussionThe findings of this study reveal that Surabadi’s Tafsir (Konya manuscript) reflects systematic patterns of phonological change in early Dari Persian, realized through processes such as consonant insertion and deletion, shifts in consonantal quality, and transformations within the vowel system. Phenomena including the insertion of nasal consonants, deletion of /t/ in complex consonant clusters, deletion or weakening of /n/ accompanied by the transfer of nasality, and the loss of hamza in loanwords are consistent with evidence from other early texts and rule out any interpretation of these forms as random or accidental. Vowel strengthening and reduction, along with consonantal alternations such as palatalization and devoicing, point to a broader linguistic tendency toward reducing phonological complexity and lightening syllable structure. The emergence of phonetic ambiguity in certain forms appears to have prevented the stabilization of some of these patterns in later Persian. Overall, the results demonstrate that Surabadi’s Tafsir constitutes a reliable linguistic source for reconstructing the phonological developments of Dari Persian, and they underscore the necessity of systematic linguistic studies based on the early manuscripts of this text.5. ConclusionFrom the description of the phonological transformations observed in the lexical items examined in the Tafsīr-i Surābādī, two key findings emerge:1. The evolved forms occur exclusively in texts written in Dari Persian and have left no trace in contemporary Persian. This indicates that these phonological processes, likely due to the ambiguity they introduced into communication and their potential for confusion with similar lexemes, were unable to become stabilized within the linguistic system and were ultimately eliminated.2. Despite their occurrence in several credible archaic texts, these lexical items have remained unnoticed by lexicologists and scholars of Persian linguistics. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10751.html This study investigates how COVID-19 has influenced peoples’ attitudes and the language of the press in both online and print media. Using a corpus-based approach, this research analyzed data from the Coronavirus corpus, which contains over 1 billion words, from March to November 2020. Sketch Engine, a database analysis software, was employed to identify and examine COVID-19 collocates and their frequency in two different periods. The results revealed that the collocates of COVID-19 can be categorized into several semantic frames, such as scientific, social, action, financial, and political. The results also showed that COVID-19 collocates and their frequency change over time, reflecting different attitudes and perspectives toward the pandemic. It was found that COVID-19 significantly impacts the attitude of people and the press language in online and print media. Moreover, COVID-19 significantly impacts the attitudes and perspectives of people and the press language in online and print media, highlighting their social responsibilities.1. IntroductionCOVID-19, as a new phenomenon, has increasingly become a major global challenge that affects human life's economic, social, and political aspects. None of the other infectious diseases, such as 1SARS, influenza, and swine flu, has been so serious as COVID-19. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2020, due to the alarming levels of spread and severity of the disease (Al Jazeera, 2020). This issue, which is represented in a large variety of spoken and written communication, has recently brought changes in the public discourse. This change might be driven by a shift in attitude toward COVID-19. What can be observed is a greater sense of pandemic and a more action-driven approach, reflected in the language used in different media. From the emergence of such a pandemic and specifically from its early global outbreak, it has introduced new words and expressions, such as “social distancing”, “lockdown”, and “herd immunity”. These terms have become part of the everyday vocabulary of people worldwide. The pandemic has also influenced the way people communicate, the culture and language of different communities and regions. In corpus-based studies, it is essential to have a consensus about which representation of the target words is more appropriate to investigate when attitude direction is intended to be considered through collocate frequency. A quick search in Sketch Engine and the English corpus for both terms showed a considerable increase in the frequency of COVID-19 and its collocations. According to the Economist website (2020), COVID-19 has been heavily covered in mass media and news in different ways, reflecting various representations such as the virus and COVID-19 as a serious concern that needs urgent action to prevent its spread.COVID-19 discourse can result in new senses and topics, represented in collocations. It is theoretically valuable to demonstrate how language varies in the social context across pandemics. One approach was to divide a corpus into different diachronic subcorpora and synchronic corpora and compare the word's collocational behavior in the COVID-19 discourse. Based on comparing the data between March-October and November 2020, the study showed how COVID-19 was framed differently in these periods and how it indicated differences in medical and political policies. Thus, this study aimed to explore that trend diachronically by investigating changes in collocations’ frequency for " COVID-19 + noun" units by looking at their distribution in the most recent data from the “English Coronavirus corpus”. Research QuestionsRQ1: How has the attitude toward COVID-19 changed over the period (March-October), as represented by the changes in collocations’ frequency for the word COVID-19 in the English corpora? RQ2: How do we talk about COVID-19 in November 2020, as represented by collocations’ frequency in the English corpora? RQ3: How can the current discursive attitude toward COVID-19 be explained in light of the changes around it over the period?2. Literature ReviewCOVID-19 became a new challenge spreading fast around the world. Linguistically, the emergence of COVID-19 involved the world in many ways, resulting in its specialized discourse. In addition to providing a database for analysis, this discourse also led to various research methods. From a sociolinguistic perspective, language theoretically mirrors the social context events. Language is not an isolated object but depends on people's behavior. Thus, the survey is based on a social and functional language approach (see, for example, Halliday, 1997). With this view of language as a base, we assume that linguistic collocations largely reflect the social contemporary - what is going on in a place and what people are talking about. Like any other non-linguistic phenomenon, the pandemic also seems to have affected the language used in the social context. More clearly, it was assumed that the COVID-19 corpus could mirror the collocations developed in the pandemic. Therefore, several frames were more likely to elaborate on the different aspects related to COVID-19. Frame semantics, as a semantic theory, refers to semantic ‘frames’ based on which the meanings of words are interpreted (Fillmore, 1982, Fillmore & Atkins, 2000). As an example, the Compliance frame entails several semantically related words such as adhere, adherence, comply, and compliant. In addition, a social frame can identify the action that is judged to be or not to be in harmony with the norms or rules that guide a person’s behavior. With the semantic frame, it is possible to describe how different words or collocations are realized by different parts of speech. However, in frame semantics, the lexical unit is the unit of description, representing a word in one of its senses.Previous research on the linguistic impact of the coronavirus pandemic and other infectious diseases mainly concentrated on the metaphorical conceptualization of infectious diseases, which has largely enriched our understanding of metaphors in the discourse (see Balteiro, 2017). To the best of our knowledge, a limited number of studies have been done to find out how the phenomenaa affect the language in use and how the words are conceptually framed to express the attitudes and beliefs toward the target word in a corpus-based study. Hence, the present study tried to fill this gap.Katermina and Yachenko (2020) reported how the phenomenon of COVID-19 influenced culture and language by looking at the collocations of COVID-19. The results showed that the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on language connoted a serious social crisis. In another study on 15 Facebook postings about COVID-19 by Azizan et al. (2020), the findings revealed that Malaysians were united in collaboration to fight against COVID-19. Wong et al. (2015) reported that the African government informed people of misinformation about the Ebola virus to frequently address fear about it on social media (tweets). In a Corpus analysis of COVID-19 language by OED (2020, April 15), the twenty top frequent collocations with COVID-19 and coronavirus from January to March were examined. The results of data analysis showed that keywords such as social distancing, self-isolation, self-quarantine, and lockdown reflect the social frame of COVID-19, issues regarding medical considerations, and the scientific frame. Results on words that collocate with COVID-19 and coronavirus resonate with the results of the past studies about Ebola, SARS, and Flu, whereby COVID-19 was also conceptualized as war or crisis conveying negative connotations. It is in line with Halliday’s (1977) assumption of discourse, based on which a text's denotative, connotative, or expressive meaning is related to its meaning and construction. Following a presentation of theoretical underpinnings, the present study focuses on relevant concepts and frames such as 'crisis', 'pandemic', 'risk', and 'threat' in the COVID-19 corpus. It will then show how the discursive processes associated with using those frames concerning a range of social, scientific, and economic phenomena are also salient in constructions of COVID-19 across eight months.3. MethodologyData for this study were collected from the Ccoronavirus corpus and analyzed(https://www.english-corpora.org/corona/). The Coronavirus corpus consists of nearly 1.5 billion words of data in about 1.9 million texts from January 2020 to December 2022, and it is designed to keep a record of the social, cultural, and economic effects of the coronavirus during this period. The corpus enables us to extract the frequency of collocations month by month and even day by day since January 2020, as shown in Figure 1. It also shows the patterns (discourses) in which collocations appear. By using the keyword COVID-19, 20 top frequent collocations on COVID-19 (N+N) dated from March 1st (early global outbreak) until November 20, 2020, were extracted based on their occurrences and were then organized orderly in an Excel file for analysis (word frequency lists and collocation lists). More clearly, each month was examined to identify words that were markedly more frequent in that month than in the corpus as a whole (‘keywords’ for those months). Moreover, to make a synchronic comparison, the most frequent collocations in November were also extracted. To be more focused on the common and closest occurring collocations on COVID-19, one word after the node COVID-19 was regarded as a collocation. However, it might be a deviation from the usual definition of collocation, where usually five words on either side of the node word should be under investigation. Then, the top ten frequent collocations forming mainframes were selected and coded by different colors as conceptual frames in a separate table to highlight the changing trend of collocations diachronically over the period. We realized that some of these collocations did not belong to any frame or were not frequent enough to appear continuously over the period, such as relief, response, hotline, diagnosis, victims, etc. Accordingly, cells containing such unrelated words were left uncolored. The top ten collocations were intuitively selected and color-coded.A COVID-19 corpus was also built and analyzed in Sketch Engine to support and evidence the collocations’ frequency and attitude direction in COVID-19 discourse. We lemmatized the COVID-19 corpus created in Sketch Engine for the study. For example, plural forms of nouns are present in the corpus, and the list of frame-related words is also composed of inflected word forms and not simple lemmas. To analyze the data, we used both descriptive and inferential statistics. In descriptive statistics, the mean, SD, and frequency distribution of data over the period were measured and presented in charts. In this way, descriptive information on collocations’ frequency was comparatively reported.Results Figure1 illustrates the dominance of social frames revealed by collocations of vaccine, protocols, dashboard, and caseload in November 2020. In contrast, the science frame was retrieved by the collocation’s cases, patients, and outbreak.Figure1. Comparison of the Conceptual Frames Within the Two-Time SpansResults also showed that the social and action frames are more frequently used than the scientific and economic frames in the COVID-19 discourse in November 2020. However, as shown in Figure 2, the collocations regarding the social and action frames appear in a balanced trend at the end of the period (September/October 2020). Despite the high frequency of collocations related to scientific and economic frames in the early period (March-October 2020), it is observed that the collocations are experiencing a significantly decreasing trend toward the end of the period. It is thus implied that there are changing trends of attitudes toward COVID-19 from scientific and economic framing into more social and action framing during the period from the early spreading of COVID-19 to November 2020. In this regard, the conceptual framing can be partially explained by new debates entering the discourse, simultaneously with the spread of COVID-19.Figure2. Fluctuations of the Frequent Collocations during March-October5. Discussion The present study findings are congruent with the reports of the studies by Azizan et al. (2020) and Chung (2011), in which the language of COVID-19 in social media and press shows Malaysians' efforts to unite and collaborate to fight against the COVID-19 and SARS outbreak. Likewise, the findings of the current study are aligned well with the study by Freedman and Wilder-Smith (2020), in which they asserted that health protocols engage the public in playing their social roles in response to COVID-19. The words in the scientific and economic frames reflect the issues regarding the pandemic spread, its diagnosis, and its effects on living aspects of people’s lives (e.g., outbreak, cases, crisis, patients, and infection). On the other hand, words in the social and action frames seem to relate to the events associated with the control and prevention of the pandemic (e.g., vaccine, protocol, dashboard, and caseload). Similarly, in the collocation analysis by OED (2020), keywords such as social distancing, self-isolation, self-quarantine, and lockdown reflect the social frame of the COVID-19 overlapped with the keyword protocols that occurred in COVID-19 discourse in the present study. Words within these frames are nouns and can be arguably used to frame the discourse of COVID-19. These collocations are identified by their frequency, more reflecting negative connotations related to the meaning and construction of the text based on Halliday (1977). Concerning the first question, it is suggested that there is a sharply decreasing trend to the end of the period. The trend shows that the panic created by the increasing number of confirmed and positive cases infected with COVID-19 forces governments and medical experts to take emergency steps to handle the crisis. Because the critical situation caused by the pandemic required urgent actions, people had better do their social responsibilities based on the determined health protocols for COVID-19. Furthermore, attitudes toward COVID-19 could be affected by the pandemic framed in different ways through the language in-use. As evident, it is not surprising to say that the use of COVID-19 itself instead of coronavirus has changed the attitude toward it from a socially negative connotation to a less threatening issue. The frequent collocations such as vaccine, protocol, dashboard, and caseload refer to the social and action frames and connote the social responsibilities that make the public comply with them. Regarding the third research question, the comparison of the collocations frequency over the period revealed that the analysis of the collocation’s occurrence is discursive as the pandemic moves into a different stage. For instance, when attitudes toward the pandemic changed from diagnosis to considerations concerning physical and mental health, safety through exploring vaccines, observing protocols, and providing updated information related to COVID-19, we witnessed a discursive move. The findings of this study provide essential information in attitude mining and can be used to reflect people’s common beliefs and feelings regarding COVID-19. Taken together, the results report the effect of the role of social and action frames in forming the public discourse on COVID-19. The attitudes toward COVID-19 show the changing trends from non-practical aspects of the pandemic to practical considerations (social) through corpus analysis, implicitly reflecting the sensational attention to humanity. In comparison, the political frame might show a lack of emotion toward human suffering, and some parties' financial and political interests in the COVID-19 situation.6. ConclusionThe collocation analysis in English corpora and Sketch Engine reveals changing trends of attitude in the COVID-19 discourse from the scientific and economic frames to the social and collaborative actions. This attitude tendency creates the hope of discovering an effective cure, reducing the number of infected cases by making vaccines until November 2020. At the beginning of the period, March-October, the collocations related to the scientific and economic frames occurred to form the COVID-19 discourse. Furthermore, replication analyses were done on COVID-19, but corpus analysis from different sources indicated that the obtained results were approximately similar across corpora and therefore consistent. Nevertheless, small variations between corpora were probably due to the keywords and discourse employed to create the datasets. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10752.html Cross-Referencing is one of the most fundamental aspects of lexicography. Its important stems from its role in creating connections among related entries that are scattered through the dictionary due to alphabetic order. Cross-Referencing has undeniably important functions such as the economy of volume and space, avoiding redundancy and repetition supplementing data, completing information , creating semantic relations and morphological networks and preventing the loss of data, learning and guiding search paths. Cross-Referencing makes a dictionary to develop beyond being a mere list of entries into a unified, coherent, and processable network in which entries are interconnected. Following a review of the theoretical foundations of cross-reference in lexicography, this study undertook a comparative analysis of representative monolingual dictionaries: two monolingual Persian dictionaries from the second half of the twentieth century—the Dehkhoda Dictionary (online version) and the Sokhan Comprehensive Persian Dictionary (print edition)—as well as the Oxford English Dictionary ,OED (online version) in English and Le Robert Dictionary (online version) in French. The Amid Persian Dictionary and the Persian Dictionary compiled by Moein have been reviewed only in a general manner. In certain cases, the Comprehensive Dictionary of the Persian Language compiled by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature was also consulted on occasion. The comparison of online French and English dictionaries with Persian dictionaries shows that, despite their literary and historical richness, Persian dictionaries have many shortcomings in terms of systematic semantic, morphological, pragmatic, stylistic, and network-based cross-references, and they are neither user-oriented nor computationally processable. In the end, based on the findings of modern lexicography and inspired by Western dictionaries, some practical solutions are proposed for designing an efficient system of cross-referencing in the Persian language.1. IntroductionCross-referencing is a core lexicographic device that links related lexical items which, due to alphabetical ordering, are often scattered across different parts of a dictionary. Modern lexicography no longer views a dictionary as a static repository of alphabetically arranged lexical units; rather, it conceptualizes a dictionary as a structured and interconnected linguistic system. Within this system, cross-referencing functions as a medio-structure that integrates the dictionary’s macrostructures and microstructures, guiding users through semantic, morphological, syntactic, historical, and stylistic relations among entries. This extended abstract presents the theoretical foundations, methodological framework, comparative findings, and practical implications of the study examining the status of cross-references in Persian monolingual lexicography. Additionally, the study evaluates how these references stack up against cross-referencing schemes found in modern online dictionaries in both English and French.Research QuestionThe article investigates the following primary question: What are the main characteristics and shortcomings of cross-reference systems in Persian monolingual dictionaries—particularly digital ones—and how can an efficient, user-oriented model be designed for Persian by drawing on modern lexicographic theory and practices in English and French online dictionaries?2. Literature ReviewCross-referencing has undergone a conceptual evolution in modern lexicography. Earlier dictionaries in the Middle Ages, such as Isidore’s Etymologiae, employed rudimentary references mainly for space-saving. By the nineteenth century, as seen in Littré’s dictionary, cross-references became a structural tool for linking related entries. Contemporary lexicography conceptualizes cross-referencing as a multifaceted cognitive and user-oriented mechanism. Atkins and Rundell (2008) distinguish three levels of cross-reference design:1. Formal (linking inflectional and derivational forms),2. Semantic (linking synonyms, antonyms, near-synonyms),3. Pragmatic (linking collocations and usage patterns).Béjoint (2010) highlights the pedagogical dimension of cross-references in learners’ dictionaries such as OALD and Longman, where references function not only semantically but also as instructional guides. Bergenholtz and Tarp (2003), within the framework of function theory, emphasize that cross-references must be tailored to user profiles—language learners, translators, researchers—each requiring different sets of links such as morphological families, collocations, historical attestations, or domain-specific senses. Wiegand (1996) introduces the idea of the medio-structure—the structural layer that organizes relations between dispersed data within the dictionary. Hartmann and James (1998), similarly, view cross-referencing as the connective tissue that transforms a dictionary from a list into a network. Despite the rich theoretical background, Persian lexicography has not developed a systematic cross-referencing tradition. Works such as Dehkhoda, Moein, Ameed, and even more recent dictionaries often employ rudimentary, non-bidirectional, and non-standardized reference markers. No comprehensive Persian-language guidebook offers a full treatment of cross-referencing, making this study a novel contribution.3. MethodologyThe study adopts a qualitative comparative methodology. Two major Persian monolingual dictionaries—Dehkhoda Dictionary (online version) and Sokhan Comprehensive Persian Dictionary—were examined in detail. Select entries were analyzed for the presence and type of semantic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic, and historical references. Limited supporting examples were drawn from Amid and Moein Persian Dictionaries and occasional references were made to the Academy of Persian Language and Literature’s Comprehensive Persian Dictionary. For cross-linguistic comparison, the study examined Oxford English Dictionary (online) and Le Robert (online), focusing on their systems of bidirectional cross-references, usage labels, collocational links, domain tags, etymological pathways, and hyperlink-based semantic networks. Data selection was random, and analysis relied on categorization adapted from Svensén (2009) as well as Atkins and Rundell (2008). 4. Results4.1 Cross-References in Persian DictionariesFindings indicate that Persian dictionaries rely heavily on implicit references embedded in definitions rather than explicit markers. The lack of standardized markers (e.g., see, cf., syn), coupled with the absence of bidirectional mapping, results in fragmented semantic networks. Morphological families (e.g., āmūz, āmūzesh, āmūzgar) are inconsistently linked; collocations are rarely treated systematically; and historical senses lack clear chronological referencing. With no user profiles or functional differentiation, references do not support language learning, translation, or linguistic research.4.2 Cross-References in English and French DictionariesIn contrast, OED and Le Robert employ extensive, well-marked, and hyperlinked reference systems. These include:· standardized semantic labels (syn, ant, see also),· hierarchical sense networks,· cross-links to inflectional and derivational families,· collocational frameworks backed by corpora,· usage labels (formal, colloquial, archaic),· etymological pathways,· and hyperlink-based reverse lookup.These features create a navigable, multidimensional lexicon rather than a linear list of entries.4.3 Comparative InsightsCompared to their Western counterparts, Persian dictionaries:· lack structural standardization and consistency,· fail to provide semantic, morphological, or pragmatic mapping,· do not use corpora to identify collocational networks,· rely on unstructured or ad-hoc reference markers,· and are not designed for digital processing or machine readability.5. DiscussionThe findings underscore an urgent need to reconceptualize Persian lexicography within a modern framework. The absence of a medio-structure limits the interpretability and pedagogical value of Persian dictionaries. Without explicit, standardized, and digitally encoded references, users cannot navigate conceptual or lexical relations efficiently, and lexicons remain opaque to computational tools. The study highlights the necessity of adopting standards such as the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), which supports validated linking, user-profile–specific reference bundles, automated error detection (broken links, circular references), and dynamic network visualization.6. ConclusionPersian monolingual dictionaries, despite their rich historical and literary resources, lack systematic, network-based cross-reference mechanisms. Drawing on modern lexicographic principles and successful practices in English and French online dictionaries, the study proposes implementing standardized markers, hyperlink-based networking, TEI-compliant encoding, user-profile differentiation, and corpus-based extraction of semantic and collocational relations. Such reforms would enable Persian lexicography to move beyond alphabetic listing toward a structured, user-oriented, machine-readable, and pedagogically effective lexicographic model. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_10753.html The present study has investigated the concept of death in Masnavi and Shahnameh based on the conceptual metaphor theory, to investigate which source domains are used for conceptualizing the abstract concept of death. The method of this corpus-based study is descriptive-analytical, and AntConc software has been used for analyzing data. The results showed that Rumi used 24 sources and Ferdowsi used 19 sources. Also, according to the results of the data analysis, there are 9 common source domains in their poems. In Ferdowsi's view, death is usually a scary and destructive creature that brings an atmosphere of nothingness and destruction. Although, in Rumi's poems, death is sometimes depicted as a pleasant phenomenon and sometimes as an unpleasant phenomenon, which on the one hand evokes a space full of pain and illusion, and on the other hand, a space full of liberation, wisdom, and growth. Based on this, it can be said that the topic and content of the analyzed poems are influential in illustrating the concepts and the poet's attitude toward these concepts.1. IntroductionThe present study examines the concept of death in the Persian texts of Shahnameh and Masnavi within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Conceptual metaphors are essential tools for analyzing abstract concepts, as they allow for the comprehension and concretization of such concepts by linking them to tangible experiences and source domains. Accordingly, this framework play a particularly significant role in concretizing the abstract concept of “death” in Persian poetry. Analyzing conceptual metaphors enables researchers to systematically investigate poets’ perspectives on death, the source domains employed, and the semantic patterns that emerge. The primary objective of this study is to identify the source domains in the Shahnameh and the Masnavi, examine the similarities and differences in their conceptualizations of death, and ultimately interpret the findings. By employing corpus-based methods and tools such as AntConc for data analysis, the study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach grounded in corpus evidence. The findings not only offer a deeper understanding of the depiction of death in Persian poetry but also reflect the influence of poets’ lived experiences, poetic genres, and broader cultural and religious worldviews on their conceptualization of this phenomenon.Research Question(s)Ø How do Ferdowsi and Rumi employ conceptual metaphors and which source domains do they use to conceptualize of death?Ø What are the similarities and differences between the source domains of the Shahnameh and the Masnavi?Ø How can the similarities and differences in Ferdowsi’s and Rumi’s perspectives on death be explained?2. Literature ReviewPrevious studies have shown that conceptual metaphors are essential tools for analyzing linguistic and cultural perceptions of death. Owiredu (2020), examining Hebrew and Akan, demonstrated that speakers of both languages employ similar source domains and comparable views on death. Solheim (2014), analyzing English and American obituary notices, identified “motion” and “emotion” as the primary source domains and highlighted cultural differences between the two contexts. Domestic studies, such as those by Sadeghi et al. (2022) and Khalifelou and Mojahidi (2022), explored conceptual metaphors in Persian poetry, revealing that metaphors reflect poets’ worldviews, cognitive frameworks, and stylistic features. Specifically, Shabanzlou (2019, 2020) and Aryan and Talkhabi (2020) analyzed death in Persian mystical and contemporary poetry, showing that metaphors simultaneously convey the philosophical, religious, and literary dimensions of the concept. Despite these contributions, research systematically examining death metaphors in classical Persian poetry, particularly the differing perspectives of prominent poets like Ferdowsi and Rumi, remains limited. The present study aims to fill this gap by employing a corpus-based, descriptive–analytical approach to investigate how death is metaphorically conceptualized and how poetic style influences poets’ conceptualization of death, thus it contributes to both cognitive linguistics and Persian literary studies. 3. MethodologyThe texts were selected because of their authors’ distinct perspectives -Ferdowsi as an epic poet and Rumi as a mystic- which make their conceptualizations of death particularly insightful. The dataset comprises the complete texts of both works. The Shahnameh Word file was retrieved from http://www.satveh.blogfa.com, and the Masnavi file from https://shefa.4kia.ir. After removing the extraneous material, the texts were compiled into seven raw corpus files using Word 2013, resulting in a total of 99,838 words (38,895 from the Masnavi and 60,943 from the Shahnameh). As the study does not test a formal hypothesis, it adopts a corpus-based, descriptive–analytical approach. Data processing and analysis were carried out using the AntConc concordance software, which enabled a systematic examination of metaphorical conceptualizations of death in both texts. 6. ConclusionThe findings of the study indicated that in Rumi’s poetry, conceptual metaphors for death, such as likening it to planting seeds, floods, or birth, are grounded in mythological foundations. Rumi draws on mythological sources and Qur’anic concepts, offering multifaceted perspectives on death and creating rich and imaginative imagery. He employs twenty-four source domains to concretize the abstract concept of death including: journey, illness, predatory animal, time, path, terrifying being, planting, autumn, maturity, growth, liberation, hunter, human, prison, reaper, separation, judge, food, wine, guest, agent of knowledge, flood or storm, place, and evolution.For Rumi, death is sometimes perceived as pleasant and at other times as unpleasant. It is pleasant in the sense that death facilitates transformation, maturation, evolution, liberation, and serves as a path from the temporal to the eternal, representing the sole route to felicity and immortality. In essence, Rumi perceives death as a bridge to truth and a release from worldly corruption. Conversely, he also depicts death as merciless, bloodthirsty, and hostile to humans, leading to destruction and annihilation. Moreover, death is likened to wine, which can taste sweet or bitter. This duality in Rumi’s perspective reflects his mystical and religious worldview, wherein death is considered a positive event for the faithful but a punishment for the wicked.Ferdowsi, however, conceptualizes death in a somewhat distinct manner differently, relying more heavily on predators and fearsome which beings as source domains. He employs nineteen source domains including: fire, place, moving object, object, path or bridge, hunter, human, predatory animal, wind, prison, eagle, destination, terrifying being, poison or wine, sharp object, obstacle, pain, door, and person’s name. In the Shahnameh, death is depicted as a dynamic and active entity -constantly moving, warring, hunter, spilling blood, and tearing apart- reflecting Ferdowsi’s epic poetic orientation. His frequent references to battles, heroes, and martial instruments such as clubs, spears, swords, and bows create a threatening atmosphere, which in turn shapes his choice of source domains.Among the source domains employed in the two corpora, nine are shared, indicating a shared understanding of death between the two poets. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1999), metaphors are rooted in embodied human experience, and conceptual thinking based on metaphors originates from embodied cognition (Kövecses, 2005, p. 2). The diversity of metaphors observed in this study can be attributed to differences in personal experiences, poetic genre, and the creative use of concrete phenomena to conceptualize an abstract entity. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_11508.html This article investigates two Lori poems dating back to the Qajar period, one composed in the Nahavandi dialect and the other in Bakhtiari. Both poems are preserved in a collection of official and private correspondence as well as treaties related to the Qajar era, currently held under catalogue number 2415 in the Central Library of the University of Tehran. The composition of these poems is estimated to have taken place approximately 150 to 200 years ago.The first poem, entitled “Ghazal in the Nahavandi Language,” consists of eight couplets and was composed by a poet known as Sheyda. The second poem, bearing the title “Qasida from Ali-Akbar Khan, Son of Khosrow Khan Sarlak, in the Language of the Lors,” comprises twenty-one couplets. Based on McKinnon’s (2011) classification, the Nahavandi and Bakhtiari dialects belong respectively to the Northern and Southern branches of Lori. Distinct morphological differences and clearly identifiable isogloss boundaries can be observed between these two varieties.The authors of the present study aim not only to introduce and describe these two poetic works, but also to provide, insofar as possible, accurate readings of the lexical items and expressions employed in both poems. In order to clarify the interpretation of certain words, comparative evidence from other Lori varieties has also been taken into account.It should be noted that, due to the absence of early written documentation for these two linguistic varieties, the phonetic transcription of the poems has been based primarily on their contemporary forms. Nevertheless, in certain instances, older forms of the dialects have been preserved and reflected where linguistic evidence has allowed https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_11509.html The purpose of the present study was to comparatively examine Persian oral language skills among bilingual (Turkish–Persian) and monolingual students in the first cycle of primary education. The research adopted a causal–comparative design. The statistical population consisted of students in Grades 1 to 3 of primary schools located in the suburban areas of Qom County. A purposive sample of 60 students (30 bilingual and 30 monolingual) was selected. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire for assessing oral language skills, comprising 18 items across 10 components. Content validity was confirmed using the Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI), and reliability was established via Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.88). Data were analyzed using independent-samples t tests and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The results indicated that bilingual students outperformed their monolingual peers across all oral language components (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that bilingual experience—particularly within linguistically rich and interaction-oriented contexts—can contribute to the enhancement of oral skills in the second language (Persian). Accordingly, the promotion of bilingual education and the application of environmental–linguistic instructional strategies in primary education are recommended. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14047.html Cyberbullying is a widespread and harmful issue, especially with the rapid growth of social media in Iran. It causes significant psychological distress for victims, making it a critical area for research. This study analyzes the linguistic, semantic, and syntactic features of cyberbullying content produced by Iranian users on Instagram and X (formerly Twitter). Focus areas include insulting vocabulary, derogatory metaphors, dominant themes, and syntactic strategies, to understand how language is used to weaponize aggression in the Persian context. A purposive sample of 500 posts and comments (250 per platform) was collected over a specific period, selecting content with clear or implied indicators of cyberbullying, such as hostile language or threats. Qualitative content analysis with thematic coding was conducted using MAXQDA, complemented by corpus linguistics techniques to examine key lexical patterns, metaphors, and punctuation. Particular attention was given to passive constructions, agent omission, and punctuation (e.g., repeated exclamation points) as strategies to evade accountability. Results revealed three major trends: Gendered insults comprised about 45% of offensive language, often targeting women with sexualized slurs or stereotypes. Emphatic punctuation, especially multiple exclamation marks (!!!), was used in 65% of cases to intensify hostility. Around 70% of content employed ambiguous syntactic structures—such as passive voice or missing subjects—to conceal the bully’s identity and reduce responsibility. Additionally, cultural metaphors comparing victims to animals or objects dehumanized them further. The study emphasizes that Persian cyberbullying relies heavily on syntactic ambiguity and gendered slurs, which pose challenges for detection tools typically designed for English. Developing localized AI-based algorithms trained on Persian data, capable of recognizing these specific markers, is essential. Policies and social media platforms should adopt context-aware solutions and educate users to combat this rising issue. Future research should include regional dialects and visual content analysis to address cyberbullying comprehensively in Iran. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14055.html This article is devoted to the study of the typology of word order in Persian, focusing on the corpus-based typology approach. The typological study of word order in Persian has shown that Persian, although it has a dominant but uncertain tendency towards verb-initial patterns, does not fall into the simplified classification of a “verb-initial” or “verb-final” language, but is a mixed language. Some hypotheses have also been put forward about the reason for this mixed classification, including that Persian is in the process of transitioning to a verb-initial reaction. In this article, first, by reviewing corpus-based typology studies using real and quantitative linguistic data, a more complete and gradual picture of the irregularity of word order in the world’s languages and, consequently, the situation of Persian is presented. Selected corpus studies show that the irregularity of word order in Persian is not uniform. For example, in the order of the head and the dependent, Persian has a relatively high irregularity, but in the sequence of the subject and the object, it has a very consistent order (mainly the subject before the object). Also, although Persian has a differential object marking using the marker "rā", this has not led to much freedom in the order of the subject and the object. Finally, an attempt has been made to explain the features of the word order of the Persian language based on areal typology. In other words, it has been attempted to show that the entropy in the word sequence of this language and its difference from verb-initial and verb-final languages can be the result of long-term language contact and influence from neighboring languages, especially Semitic and Turkic languages, in the "West Asian Transition Zone". An examination of the orders of nominal object and verb, pronominal object and verb, object and verb, and preposition and noun shows that language contact has had a definite effect on the irregularities in word sequence. Finally, the importance of corpus-based research and the construction of more corpora for Persian and other Iranian languages has been emphasized. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14058.html AbstractThe concept of Zand occupies an ambiguous and multifaceted position within the Zoroastrian tradition. Conventionally, the term Zand refers to the translation of Avestan texts into the Pahlavi language carried out by religious scholars. However, this definition hardly captures the full complexity and interpretive depth inherent in the notion. Over the past three centuries, numerous Western scholars have sought to examine both the explicit and implicit dimensions of Zand, producing an array of interpretations and raising fundamental questions regarding its etymology, its usage within Avestan and Pahlavi texts—particularly in the interplay between Manthra and Zand—its conceptual definition, semantic evolution, the existence of an exegetical tradition among Zand interpreters, the sacredness attributed to Zand texts, their possible oral or written modes of transmission, the influence of foreign intellectual traditions, and the nature of Zand as a translation or commentary on the Avesta.This paper undertakes a comprehensive synthesis of these varied scholarly perspectives, critically examining their foundations and interrelations in order to construct a coherent and refined understanding of the concept of Zand. Through this comparative and analytical approach, the study aims to clarify the boundaries and meaning of Zand and to dispel the conceptual ambiguities that have long surrounded it.Keywords: Zoroastrian tradition; Avesta; Zand; exegetical studies; Zand scholarship https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14059.html The rise of digital communication tools, such as social networks and messaging platforms, has led to an expansion of diverse writing styles in Persian, including colloquial and non-standard (broken) forms. Converting such texts into standard Persian writing, especially based on the latest orthographic guidelines of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, requires advanced natural language processing tools. This study compares the performance of five large language models, namely ChatGPT, Gemini, Perplexity, Claude, and DeepSeek, by automatically converting colloquial Persian into standard written form. The dataset utilized in this study was compiled and corrected from two major corpora. A sub-corpus has been created through random sampling and resulted in 1,025 sentences and 11,939 tokens. Outputs from the models were compared to gold-standard annotations, focusing on both positive correction (e.g., correct use of half-spaces, Ezafe, hamza, and standardizing informal forms) and negative errors (e.g., word replacement, deletion of clitics, and stylistic shifts). Findings indicate that the language model in Claude achieved the highest alignment with the gold-standard (51.39%) at word and sentence level, while Perplexity performed the worst. The results highlight that, despite their strengths, large language models still face challenges in accurately standardizing Persian text in line with formal orthographic conventions. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14060.html Auditory function plays a pivotal role in natural language development, and damage to it can lead to serious disorders in the acquisition of grammar. This research was conducted with the aim of delineating the grammatical profile of Persian-speaking hearing-impaired children and its quantitative and qualitative comparison with hearing children using a standardized test. This study was descriptive-analytical and was carried out using a field method. The statistical population consisted of hearing-impaired children in Baghcheban schools in Tehran, from which 10 hearing-impaired second-grade elementary school children were selected as the experimental group and 10 hearing children were selected as the control group via available sampling. The research tool was the standardized "Grammatical Expression" test by Haras Abadi and colleagues (2014), which included 40 items for assessing 20 different grammatical structures. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test in SPSS software. Data analysis showed a significant difference between the overall performance of the two groups in the domain of grammatical expression. Specifically, hearing-impaired children showed the most problems in using complex syntactic structures such as adverbial relative clauses, causative constructions, and contrastive pronouns, as well as in inflectional categories such as verb tense, mood, and aspect, verb agreement, and attached pronouns. The findings indicate the existence of a much weaker grammatical profile in Persian-speaking hearing-impaired children compared to their hearing peers. This weakness was particularly evident in complex syntactic structures and sensitive inflectional categories. The results emphasize the necessity of designing and implementing early, targeted, and intensive speech therapy interventions that specifically focus on explicit teaching of these structures. Such interventions can greatly help reduce the linguistic gap and improve the communication skills of these children. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14061.html This study examines the factors that inhibit vowel reduction in the Kermani variety of Persian. While vowel reduction in this variety is typically conditioned by syllable weight (occurring in monomoraic syllables), it fails to apply in certain phonetic contexts. One such context is adjacency to laryngeal consonants. Analysis reveals that laryngeal consonants, lacking a place of articulation feature and being produced outside the oral/nasal cavity, do not have a formant target. Consequently, the articulatory features of adjacent vowels remain unchanged, leading to their longer formant frequencies. Another context involves words that exhibit consonant gemination in Standard Persian. Acoustic evidence from the Kermani variety reveals that consonants are not geminated in this dialect; instead, the preceding short vowel undergoes lengthening. This observation suggests a phonological constraint in this variety that blocks consonant gemination, spreading the moraic weight to the short vowel and rendering it bimoraic. A common feature in both contexts is the prolonged articulatory stability of short vowels, which prevents undershoot, thereby inhibiting vowel reduction and preserving vowel contrasts. What we observe in this language variety is the interaction between the Principle of Least Effort and the Principle of Economy. In monomoraic syllables, the Principle of Least Effort derives the neutralization of vowel contrasts, whereas in heavier syllables, the Principle of Economy preserves contrasts by inhibiting neutralization. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14062.html This article examines and analyzes four Parthian Pahlavi fragments from the Turfan collection, dedicated to the worship of the Narisaf Yazad. The study begins with a detailed and comprehensive description of the codicological features of the manuscripts, including their physical dimensions, leaf structure, preservation status, the material and quality of the writing surfaces, and script characteristics. It then provides transliteration, transcription, grammatical analysis, and translation of the texts to clarify their linguistic, orthographic, and syntactic aspects. A content analysis also highlights Narisaf’s position within the Manichaean cosmic and religious system, the concepts associated with ritual practices, and the role of short hymns in ceremonial and religious traditions. The findings indicate that these hymns, besides their religious and historical significance, reflect the linguistic, orthographic, and codicological characteristics of Parthian Pahlavi Manichaean texts. Through meticulous reading, translation, and documented analysis, the article offers a comprehensive, clear, and up-to-date picture of the linguistic, content-related, orthographic, and codicological dimensions of the Parthian Manichaean hymns in Turfan. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14063.html The Arabic–Persian dictionary Al-sorâh men al-sehâh, compiled by Jamâl al-Din Abulfazl Mohammad Qarshi, represents a concise translation of Tâj al-Loghat and Sehâh al-Arabiyyat written by Abu Nasr Ismail ben Hammâd Jowhari (died 393 AH) Completed in 700 AH in Kashghar. In 1397 SH (2018 CE), Mohammad-Hosayn Heydariân produced a critical edition of Al-sorâh men al-sehâh; This edited text is the basis for the upcoming research. Focusing on the Persian equivalents, this article systematically catalogs the dictionary’s rare, prominent, and valuable lexical items. First, the Persian equivalent is recorded, in the form of a headword, and then its Arabic original, or the Arabic original along with a definition containing the equivalent. When the Arabic source is obscure or archaic, modern equivalents or succinct definitions, drawn from comparative consultation of classical lexica, are supplied. Numerous Persian renderings found in sorâh also appear in earlier and later Arab–Persian dictionaries, attesting to reciprocal intertextual influences between Qarshi’s work and its lexicographical predecessors and successors. To elucidate these diachronic and intertextual networks, each entry is cross-referenced with pertinent ancient Arabic–Persian glossaries. Finally, a quantitative analysis delineates the intertextual relationships between sorâh and other early Arab–Persian dictionaries, shedding light on its place within the broader tradition of bilingual lexicography. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14064.html The Farrokhi Dictionary is among the lesser-known Persian lexicons, compiled in 1245 AH in the Indian subcontinent. The author of this dictionary is Moḥyeddin Nā’eṭi, known as Pattūr, about whose life we have little information. The dictionary itself has not been properly studied, and the scant information available about it is mostly inaccurate. Farrokhi Dictionary has not yet been published; its only known manuscript was previously kept in the Fort William College collection and is now preserved in the National Archives of India. This copy was transcribed in 1249 AH by Mohammad Abbas, pen-named Makhmoor. The brief introduction of the Farrokhi Dictionary is divided into five “methods”: the alphabet; the meanings of the letters and how they are transformed into one another; pronouns; meanings of prepositions, suffixes, and prefixes; and the method of collecting, compiling, and organizing the dictionary’s content. Moḥyeddin, while criticizing the common approaches of earlier lexicographers in categorizing entries, has arranged his own entries in alphabetical order. These entries are defined very concisely, and the meanings are listed sequentially without any textual evidence or citations. The primary sources used in the Farrokhi Dictionary, in order of usage, are Jahangiri Dictionary, Montakhab al-Lughat-e Shahjahani, and Kashf al-Lughat wa al-Iṣṭilāḥāt. The Farrokhi Dictionary itself has served as a source for Āṣaf al-Lughat. The purpose of this article is to examine the Farrokhi Dictionary from various perspectives and to present new information about it. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14065.html The vernacular language and literature of any society include many of its cultural components and, as a result, are the most appropriate tools for recognizing the cultural identity of the people of that society. In the meantime, vernacular lexicography, which has become very popular in the contemporary period, plays an effective role in recognizing this identity. One of the prominent works in the field of lexicography of this type of language is the Persian Vernacular Dictionary, by Abolhasan Najafi, which has examined the colloquial vocabulary units of Tehran since the beginning of the fourteenth century. This research aimed to evaluate the success of this book in observing the principles of lexicography based on the library method. After studying these principles and examining the elements of lexicography, the result was that the aforementioned work is the best dictionary in the field of vernacular language, because unlike previous similar works, it has a comprehensive, systematic, and up-to-date lexicography structure, and it also avoids oral sources and benefits from a coherent written corpus. Although there are also some drawbacks in the formal areas of dictionary writing. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14066.html Along with the progress of the judicial system, the language of the court and the way of speaking in legal contexts have also been accompanied by changes and developments. This new linguistic field provides a valuable platform for examining linguistic theories and their adaptability in the field of law. In this regard, this article aims to compare the politeness and impoliteness markers of Brown and Levinson (1987) and Culpepper (1996) theories in the conversations of judges and defendants and determines the appearance of these markers and degree of following and violating regarding these variables by these two judicial groups. For this purpose, 15 video files related to the public sessions of the Iranian criminal courts were taken from the Aparat website as a available sampling, and after transcription, they were subjected to quantitative and qualitative analysis. The results of descriptive and inferential statistics show that judges and defendants have the highest frequency in the "following of social distance" marker in the formation of polite words. Also, regarding the violation of the principles of politeness, it was found that the marker of "non-following of negative politeness" had the highest frequency in the conversations of the judges, and the marker of "non-following of power relations" had the highest frequency in the words of the defendants. In addition, the results show that the judges have a significant difference with the defendants in respect of other markers, except for the "following of positive politeness" marker. The defendants also have significant differences with the judges in violating all the markers. The reason why most judges adhere to the principle of politeness can be related to the issue of keeping face and power. https://lsi-linguistics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_14067.html Multilingualism, which refers to the ability of an individual or a society to use two or more languages in various communication situations, is one of the important consequences of globalization and the expansion of contact between linguistic communities. This phenomenon is not simply an individual knowledge or skill, but also has widespread effects on the community level in the areas of education, identity, and culture. For this reason, it has become one of the main focuses of sociolinguistics in recent years. In this context, the present article introduces and reviews the book “Multilingualism: A sociolinguistic and acquisitional approach,” which aims to provide a comprehensive picture of the theoretical, social, and practical dimensions of this phenomenon in the contemporary world. The book is organized into four parts and fourteen chapters, covering a wide range of topics related to multilingualism. The book's opening chapters introduce the theoretical foundations of multilingualism, the distinction between individual and social multilingualism, and some common and incorrect notions about bilingualism, emphasizing the continuum view of language competence. Concepts such as language contact, code-switching, borrowing, translanguaging, and the roles of English in a multilingual world are then discussed and examined. The book further explores the social and practical dimensions of multilingualism in areas such as language policies, multiple identities, education, migration and asylum, new media, pop music, and linguistic perspectives in the public sphere. The final part is devoted to research methodology in multilingualism, introducing quantitative and qualitative approaches and emphasizing the importance of Internet data and linguistic corpora in contemporary analyses.